[Front Matter and Table of Contents]: Title pages, editorial information, and the detailed table of contents for the volume 'Fürst Bürger Mensch', focusing on political and socio-cultural transformation processes in pre-revolutionary Europe. [Foreword: The Modernization of the 18th Century]: The editors discuss the shifting focus of German-language historical research toward the 18th century. They argue that the roots of the modern industrial world and social structures are found in this period, moving beyond older views of pure rationalism or decadence to explore the tension between 'Old Europe' and modernization. [In Search of an Elusive Ruler: Source Material for George I]: Ragnhild Hatton examines the methodological difficulties in reconstructing the biography and political influence of George I. She explores the necessity of secrecy in 18th-century governance, the impact of the Jacobite threat, and the personal temperament of the King. The essay utilizes previously unexamined private archives (Bernstorff, Görtz, and Schulenburg) to challenge the traditional 'stock-picture' of George I as an inarticulate or boorish ruler, revealing instead a diligent administrator with deep personal interests in architecture, music, and European diplomacy. [Footnotes for 'In Search of an Elusive Ruler']: Bibliographic references and archival notes supporting Ragnhild Hatton's essay on George I, including citations for the Royal Archives at Windsor and various German state archives. [Thoughts on Princely Palace Construction of Absolutism]: Renate Wagner-Rieger analyzes the architectural evolution of the princely residence during the era of absolutism. She links the planning of the Vienna Hofburg to political milestones like the Pragmatic Sanction and the rise of the Austrian Empire. The essay compares the introverted, courtyard-based systems of the Habsburgs (influenced by the Escorial and neostoicism) with the expansive, forum-like structures of Frederick II's Prussia and the centralized symbolism of Versailles. She argues that palace design was a direct expression of the ruler's self-conception and the state's administrative centralization. [The Empire in the Tension of the Prussian-Austrian Conflict]: Alfred Kohler examines the attempts to form a 'League of Princes' (Fürstenbund) between 1783 and 1785 as a 'third force' against the dominance of Austria and Prussia. He details the initiatives of Baden and Zweibrücken, the impact of Joseph II's ecclesiastical and territorial policies (the Bavarian-Netherlands exchange), and how Frederick II eventually co-opted the movement to serve Prussian power interests. The essay highlights the failure of the middle states to reform the imperial constitution while caught between the two great powers. [From the Aristotelian to the Liberal Concept of the Constitution]: Gerald Stourzh traces the conceptual shift from the classical Aristotelian definition of 'politeia' (as the order of offices) to the modern liberal concept of a constitution. He identifies four key components of the modern definition: the regulation of state organs, the protection of individual rights, the separation of powers, and the status of the constitution as paramount law. The essay focuses on the development of these ideas in 17th and 18th-century England and North America. [The Influence of Ancient State Theory on 17th and 18th Century Political Vocabulary]: This section examines how ancient Greek and Roman political concepts, particularly the Aristotelian tradition, shaped the English constitutional vocabulary. It explores the distinction between 'dominium politicum' and 'dominium regale' as used by Fortescue and later Somers, and traces the evolution of terms like 'politeia' and 'government' before they were formally translated as 'constitution'. [The Concept of Politeia and Government in Early Modern England]: The author analyzes the works of Sir Thomas Smith and Richard Hooker to demonstrate how 'politeia' was historically rendered as 'policy', 'commonwealth', or 'government'. It highlights the early modern focus on the state apparatus and the organization of rule (magistratures) rather than a modern legalistic definition of a constitution. [The Interregnum and the 'Instrument of Government']: This segment discusses the transition of English government during the 1649 revolution as a 'metabole politeias'. It focuses on Cromwell's 'Instrument of Government' (1653), arguing that while it is often called the first written constitution, contemporary sources referred to it as 'The Government' or 'Articles of Government'. [The Etymological Roots of 'Constitution': Physical and Legal Origins]: The author traces the word 'constitution' to two roots: the medical/physical 'constitution' of the human body applied metaphorically to the 'body politic', and the legal tradition of 'fundamental laws'. Through thinkers like Forset and Bacon, the text shows how the term initially described the 'state' or 'health' of the political body before becoming a legal term. [The Emergence of 'Constitution' in 17th Century Legal Debates]: This section details the increasing use of 'constitution' in legal disputes, such as the 1610 impositions debate and the 1642 'Answers to the XIX Propositions'. It culminates in the 1689 Glorious Revolution, where the term was used in a fundamental state act to declare that James II had subverted the 'constitution of the kingdom'. [Fundamental Laws and the Plurality of Constitutions]: The text explores the plural usage of 'constitutions' as specific enacted laws, rooted in Roman and Canon law. It examines John Locke's 'Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina' and William Penn's drafts for Pennsylvania, illustrating how 'fundamental constitutions' served as precursors to modern constitutional articles. [Constitutionalization of Individual Rights in England and North America]: This final segment of the chunk introduces the distinction between the 'fundamentalization' and 'constitutionalization' of individual rights. It begins to contrast the English tradition of rights protected via Common Law with the American development of rights anchored in written constitutional documents, citing William Penn's definition of English birth-rights. [The Fundamental Laws and Individual Rights in English Legal Tradition]: This segment explores the 'fundamentalization' of individual rights in England, distinguishing it from formal constitutionalization. It highlights William Penn's definition of English birthrights—ownership, voting, and jury participation—and Edward Chamberlayne's 1669 list of 'hereditary fundamental Liberties.' The author argues that while common law protected these rights, the principle of parliamentary sovereignty allowed for their suspension (e.g., Habeas Corpus), meaning rights were culturally fundamental but not formally entrenched beyond legislative reach. [The Constitutionalization of Rights in Colonial America and Revolutionary States]: The text traces the transition from English 'fundamental laws' to the formal constitutionalization of rights in the American colonies, specifically citing the 1677 West New Jersey 'Concessions and Agreements' as a precursor to modern constitutions. It analyzes how revolutionary state constitutions (Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts) merged organizational norms with declarations of rights into a single, higher-ranking written document. The section concludes by linking this development to the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. [Appendix: Liberties and Properties of the Commons of England (1669)]: An archival appendix listing eight specific 'hereditary fundamental Liberties and Properties' of the English commonalty as recorded by Edward Chamberlayne in 1669. These include protections against arbitrary imprisonment, the right to Habeas Corpus, freedom from quartering soldiers, the requirement of parliamentary consent for taxes, and the right to trial by peers. [Pre-Industrial Family Forms: The 'Whole House' and the Nuclear Family Debate]: Michael Mitterauer critiques the sociological models of family evolution, specifically the transition from the 'stem family' (Stammfamilie) or 'whole house' (ganzes Haus) to the nuclear family (Kernfamilie). He challenges the thesis that the nuclear family only emerged with industrialization, citing research by Peter Laslett and others that shows small household sizes in Western Europe long before the 19th century. Mitterauer argues for a more dynamic view of family structures based on life cycles rather than static census snapshots. [Defining the Nuclear Family and the Family Cycle in Historical Context]: This segment defines the 'nuclear family' and its various sociological labels (Gattenfamilie, Kleinfamilie). Using 1961 Vienna census data as a modern comparison, the author illustrates that the 'complete' nuclear family is often just one phase in a family cycle that includes periods of 'incompleteness' (widowhood, singlehood). Mitterauer emphasizes that structural continuity in family history must be proven through analogous developmental forms rather than just static configurations in historical lists. [Comparative Analysis of Family Structures in Salzburg (17th-18th Century)]: Mitterauer presents a comparative study of pre-industrial family forms in the Salzburg region using 'Libri status animarum' (soul books). He compares urban Salzburg with rural parishes like Abtenau and Dorfbeuern across the 17th and 18th centuries. The data shows that the nuclear family was not the dominant form in either setting, and its frequency often correlated with social topography—higher in suburbs and among lower social classes, lower in the city center and among the elite. [The Role of the 'Ausgedinge' and Multi-Generational Rural Households]: The text examines the 'stem family' and multi-generational households in rural Salzburg, identifying the 'Ausgedinge' (retirement provision) as the primary driver for three-generation families. Mitterauer distinguishes between the true stem family (where the patriarch retains authority) and the retirement-based model (where authority passes to the middle generation). He notes that these structures were highly dependent on local land-tenure laws (e.g., Erbzinsleihe vs. Freistiftrecht) and were largely absent in urban settings. [Urban Family Dynamics: Artisans, Servants, and Individual Employment]: Mitterauer analyzes the unique structure of urban families in Salzburg, where multi-generational households were rare due to the lack of agricultural retirement institutions and the nature of artisan life. He explores the 'Gesinde' (servants/apprentices) as a core component of the urban 'whole house.' The segment details how the expansion of the prince-archbishop's court led to an increase in individual wage labor and 'incomplete' families, as lower-level court servants established independent, servant-less households (often nuclear families) outside the traditional guild structure. [The Impact of Urbanization and Life Cycles on Family Composition]: This section concludes the family study by discussing the impact of urbanization on family functions. As the family was relieved of production functions (moving toward individual wage labor), the necessity for large, servant-inclusive households decreased. Mitterauer notes an increase in single-person households, 'incomplete' families (widows/widowers), and non-related lodgers (Bettgeher) in the city. In contrast, rural areas saw a decline in lodgers (Inwohner) due to marriage restrictions and the settling of smallholders (Kleinhäusler), simplifying the rural household structure. [The Image of the Overseas Inhabitant in Enlightenment Consciousness]: Urs Bitterli examines how the encounter with overseas peoples entered European consciousness during the Enlightenment. He tracks the shift from early, biased chronicles to the systematic 'collections' of travelogues in the 18th century (e.g., Astley, Prévost). Bitterli argues that while these works were encyclopedic and aimed at objectivity, they often remained trapped in Eurocentric frameworks, categorizing foreign cultures by European standards of religion, government, and morality. [Scientific Expeditions and the Systematic Study of 'Savage' Peoples]: Bitterli describes the 'second age of discovery' characterized by scientific expeditions led by figures like James Cook and Joseph Banks. He highlights the development of detailed questionnaires (e.g., by Degérando and Blumenbach) designed to gather precise anthropological and psychological data. This period saw the rise of the 'Noble Savage' trope in literature and the first serious attempts to understand indigenous languages and social structures, though still influenced by Enlightenment theories of 'perfectibility.' [Anthropological Debates: Monogenism vs. Polygenism and the Concept of Race]: This segment delves into the 18th-century debate over the origin of human races. Bitterli contrasts 'Polygenists' (who argued for separate creations to justify slavery) with 'Monogenists' like Kant, Buffon, and Blumenbach (who argued for a single human origin). He explains how Kant and Blumenbach moved toward a scientific definition of race based on hereditary physical traits rather than moral or intellectual ones, and discusses the era's fascination with the 'missing link' between humans and apes. [Rousseau's Legacy and the Foundations of Modern Ethnology]: Bitterli concludes by discussing Rousseau's 'Discours sur l'inégalité' as a foundational text for modern ethnology. Rousseau used the 'natural man' as a mirror to critique European civilization, arguing that observing differences is necessary to discover common human properties. This dialectic—understanding the self through the distant 'other'—is presented as the Enlightenment's lasting contribution to the human sciences. [1789: The Bourgeoisie Between Enlightenment and Revolution]: Walter Markov addresses the historiographical debates surrounding the French Revolution, specifically targeting revisionist claims that deny the class character of the bourgeoisie or the impact of the Enlightenment. He defends the traditional interpretation (Jaurès, Mathiez, Lefebvre, Soboul) of 1789 as a bourgeois revolution. Markov argues that modern attempts to 'de-revolutionize' the event or turn it into a 'myth' conflict with the historical reality of the Third Estate's world-changing political intervention. [Bibliographical References on the French Revolution]: A comprehensive list of academic citations and bibliographical references concerning the French Revolution, feudalism, and 18th-century social structures. It includes works by prominent historians such as Albert Soboul, Walter Markov, and Michel Vovelle, focusing on class struggle and the transition from feudalism. [1789: The Bourgeois Confronts Enlightenment and Revolution]: Walter Markov explores the complex relationship between Enlightenment philosophy and revolutionary practice. He analyzes how the French bourgeoisie utilized Enlightenment ideals as a tool for political mobilization while often being surprised by the radicalism of the masses. The essay contrasts the 'French way' with developments in England and the Holy Roman Empire, specifically examining the failure of the 'Jacobin' movements in the Habsburg territories and the limitations of Josephinian reforms. Markov concludes by discussing the Marxist interpretation of these events, emphasizing the continuity of bourgeois interests despite the 'withered flowers' of revolutionary pathos. [List of Contributors and Biographies]: Biographical sketches of the contributors to the volume, including Urs Bitterli, Ragnhild M. Hatton, Alfred Kohler, Walter Markov, Michael Mitterauer, Gerald Stourzh, and Renate Wagner-Rieger, detailing their academic positions and major publications. [Table of Contents and Series Overview]: The table of contents for the current volume, 'Fürst Bürger Mensch', followed by descriptions of other volumes in the series 'Wiener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Neuzeit', covering topics such as historical theory, forms of European Enlightenment, and social history.
Title pages, editorial information, and the detailed table of contents for the volume 'Fürst Bürger Mensch', focusing on political and socio-cultural transformation processes in pre-revolutionary Europe.
Read full textThe editors discuss the shifting focus of German-language historical research toward the 18th century. They argue that the roots of the modern industrial world and social structures are found in this period, moving beyond older views of pure rationalism or decadence to explore the tension between 'Old Europe' and modernization.
Read full textRagnhild Hatton examines the methodological difficulties in reconstructing the biography and political influence of George I. She explores the necessity of secrecy in 18th-century governance, the impact of the Jacobite threat, and the personal temperament of the King. The essay utilizes previously unexamined private archives (Bernstorff, Görtz, and Schulenburg) to challenge the traditional 'stock-picture' of George I as an inarticulate or boorish ruler, revealing instead a diligent administrator with deep personal interests in architecture, music, and European diplomacy.
Read full textBibliographic references and archival notes supporting Ragnhild Hatton's essay on George I, including citations for the Royal Archives at Windsor and various German state archives.
Read full textRenate Wagner-Rieger analyzes the architectural evolution of the princely residence during the era of absolutism. She links the planning of the Vienna Hofburg to political milestones like the Pragmatic Sanction and the rise of the Austrian Empire. The essay compares the introverted, courtyard-based systems of the Habsburgs (influenced by the Escorial and neostoicism) with the expansive, forum-like structures of Frederick II's Prussia and the centralized symbolism of Versailles. She argues that palace design was a direct expression of the ruler's self-conception and the state's administrative centralization.
Read full textAlfred Kohler examines the attempts to form a 'League of Princes' (Fürstenbund) between 1783 and 1785 as a 'third force' against the dominance of Austria and Prussia. He details the initiatives of Baden and Zweibrücken, the impact of Joseph II's ecclesiastical and territorial policies (the Bavarian-Netherlands exchange), and how Frederick II eventually co-opted the movement to serve Prussian power interests. The essay highlights the failure of the middle states to reform the imperial constitution while caught between the two great powers.
Read full textGerald Stourzh traces the conceptual shift from the classical Aristotelian definition of 'politeia' (as the order of offices) to the modern liberal concept of a constitution. He identifies four key components of the modern definition: the regulation of state organs, the protection of individual rights, the separation of powers, and the status of the constitution as paramount law. The essay focuses on the development of these ideas in 17th and 18th-century England and North America.
Read full textThis section examines how ancient Greek and Roman political concepts, particularly the Aristotelian tradition, shaped the English constitutional vocabulary. It explores the distinction between 'dominium politicum' and 'dominium regale' as used by Fortescue and later Somers, and traces the evolution of terms like 'politeia' and 'government' before they were formally translated as 'constitution'.
Read full textThe author analyzes the works of Sir Thomas Smith and Richard Hooker to demonstrate how 'politeia' was historically rendered as 'policy', 'commonwealth', or 'government'. It highlights the early modern focus on the state apparatus and the organization of rule (magistratures) rather than a modern legalistic definition of a constitution.
Read full textThis segment discusses the transition of English government during the 1649 revolution as a 'metabole politeias'. It focuses on Cromwell's 'Instrument of Government' (1653), arguing that while it is often called the first written constitution, contemporary sources referred to it as 'The Government' or 'Articles of Government'.
Read full textThe author traces the word 'constitution' to two roots: the medical/physical 'constitution' of the human body applied metaphorically to the 'body politic', and the legal tradition of 'fundamental laws'. Through thinkers like Forset and Bacon, the text shows how the term initially described the 'state' or 'health' of the political body before becoming a legal term.
Read full textThis section details the increasing use of 'constitution' in legal disputes, such as the 1610 impositions debate and the 1642 'Answers to the XIX Propositions'. It culminates in the 1689 Glorious Revolution, where the term was used in a fundamental state act to declare that James II had subverted the 'constitution of the kingdom'.
Read full textThe text explores the plural usage of 'constitutions' as specific enacted laws, rooted in Roman and Canon law. It examines John Locke's 'Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina' and William Penn's drafts for Pennsylvania, illustrating how 'fundamental constitutions' served as precursors to modern constitutional articles.
Read full textThis final segment of the chunk introduces the distinction between the 'fundamentalization' and 'constitutionalization' of individual rights. It begins to contrast the English tradition of rights protected via Common Law with the American development of rights anchored in written constitutional documents, citing William Penn's definition of English birth-rights.
Read full textThis segment explores the 'fundamentalization' of individual rights in England, distinguishing it from formal constitutionalization. It highlights William Penn's definition of English birthrights—ownership, voting, and jury participation—and Edward Chamberlayne's 1669 list of 'hereditary fundamental Liberties.' The author argues that while common law protected these rights, the principle of parliamentary sovereignty allowed for their suspension (e.g., Habeas Corpus), meaning rights were culturally fundamental but not formally entrenched beyond legislative reach.
Read full textThe text traces the transition from English 'fundamental laws' to the formal constitutionalization of rights in the American colonies, specifically citing the 1677 West New Jersey 'Concessions and Agreements' as a precursor to modern constitutions. It analyzes how revolutionary state constitutions (Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts) merged organizational norms with declarations of rights into a single, higher-ranking written document. The section concludes by linking this development to the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Read full textAn archival appendix listing eight specific 'hereditary fundamental Liberties and Properties' of the English commonalty as recorded by Edward Chamberlayne in 1669. These include protections against arbitrary imprisonment, the right to Habeas Corpus, freedom from quartering soldiers, the requirement of parliamentary consent for taxes, and the right to trial by peers.
Read full textMichael Mitterauer critiques the sociological models of family evolution, specifically the transition from the 'stem family' (Stammfamilie) or 'whole house' (ganzes Haus) to the nuclear family (Kernfamilie). He challenges the thesis that the nuclear family only emerged with industrialization, citing research by Peter Laslett and others that shows small household sizes in Western Europe long before the 19th century. Mitterauer argues for a more dynamic view of family structures based on life cycles rather than static census snapshots.
Read full textThis segment defines the 'nuclear family' and its various sociological labels (Gattenfamilie, Kleinfamilie). Using 1961 Vienna census data as a modern comparison, the author illustrates that the 'complete' nuclear family is often just one phase in a family cycle that includes periods of 'incompleteness' (widowhood, singlehood). Mitterauer emphasizes that structural continuity in family history must be proven through analogous developmental forms rather than just static configurations in historical lists.
Read full textMitterauer presents a comparative study of pre-industrial family forms in the Salzburg region using 'Libri status animarum' (soul books). He compares urban Salzburg with rural parishes like Abtenau and Dorfbeuern across the 17th and 18th centuries. The data shows that the nuclear family was not the dominant form in either setting, and its frequency often correlated with social topography—higher in suburbs and among lower social classes, lower in the city center and among the elite.
Read full textThe text examines the 'stem family' and multi-generational households in rural Salzburg, identifying the 'Ausgedinge' (retirement provision) as the primary driver for three-generation families. Mitterauer distinguishes between the true stem family (where the patriarch retains authority) and the retirement-based model (where authority passes to the middle generation). He notes that these structures were highly dependent on local land-tenure laws (e.g., Erbzinsleihe vs. Freistiftrecht) and were largely absent in urban settings.
Read full textMitterauer analyzes the unique structure of urban families in Salzburg, where multi-generational households were rare due to the lack of agricultural retirement institutions and the nature of artisan life. He explores the 'Gesinde' (servants/apprentices) as a core component of the urban 'whole house.' The segment details how the expansion of the prince-archbishop's court led to an increase in individual wage labor and 'incomplete' families, as lower-level court servants established independent, servant-less households (often nuclear families) outside the traditional guild structure.
Read full textThis section concludes the family study by discussing the impact of urbanization on family functions. As the family was relieved of production functions (moving toward individual wage labor), the necessity for large, servant-inclusive households decreased. Mitterauer notes an increase in single-person households, 'incomplete' families (widows/widowers), and non-related lodgers (Bettgeher) in the city. In contrast, rural areas saw a decline in lodgers (Inwohner) due to marriage restrictions and the settling of smallholders (Kleinhäusler), simplifying the rural household structure.
Read full textUrs Bitterli examines how the encounter with overseas peoples entered European consciousness during the Enlightenment. He tracks the shift from early, biased chronicles to the systematic 'collections' of travelogues in the 18th century (e.g., Astley, Prévost). Bitterli argues that while these works were encyclopedic and aimed at objectivity, they often remained trapped in Eurocentric frameworks, categorizing foreign cultures by European standards of religion, government, and morality.
Read full textBitterli describes the 'second age of discovery' characterized by scientific expeditions led by figures like James Cook and Joseph Banks. He highlights the development of detailed questionnaires (e.g., by Degérando and Blumenbach) designed to gather precise anthropological and psychological data. This period saw the rise of the 'Noble Savage' trope in literature and the first serious attempts to understand indigenous languages and social structures, though still influenced by Enlightenment theories of 'perfectibility.'
Read full textThis segment delves into the 18th-century debate over the origin of human races. Bitterli contrasts 'Polygenists' (who argued for separate creations to justify slavery) with 'Monogenists' like Kant, Buffon, and Blumenbach (who argued for a single human origin). He explains how Kant and Blumenbach moved toward a scientific definition of race based on hereditary physical traits rather than moral or intellectual ones, and discusses the era's fascination with the 'missing link' between humans and apes.
Read full textBitterli concludes by discussing Rousseau's 'Discours sur l'inégalité' as a foundational text for modern ethnology. Rousseau used the 'natural man' as a mirror to critique European civilization, arguing that observing differences is necessary to discover common human properties. This dialectic—understanding the self through the distant 'other'—is presented as the Enlightenment's lasting contribution to the human sciences.
Read full textWalter Markov addresses the historiographical debates surrounding the French Revolution, specifically targeting revisionist claims that deny the class character of the bourgeoisie or the impact of the Enlightenment. He defends the traditional interpretation (Jaurès, Mathiez, Lefebvre, Soboul) of 1789 as a bourgeois revolution. Markov argues that modern attempts to 'de-revolutionize' the event or turn it into a 'myth' conflict with the historical reality of the Third Estate's world-changing political intervention.
Read full textA comprehensive list of academic citations and bibliographical references concerning the French Revolution, feudalism, and 18th-century social structures. It includes works by prominent historians such as Albert Soboul, Walter Markov, and Michel Vovelle, focusing on class struggle and the transition from feudalism.
Read full textWalter Markov explores the complex relationship between Enlightenment philosophy and revolutionary practice. He analyzes how the French bourgeoisie utilized Enlightenment ideals as a tool for political mobilization while often being surprised by the radicalism of the masses. The essay contrasts the 'French way' with developments in England and the Holy Roman Empire, specifically examining the failure of the 'Jacobin' movements in the Habsburg territories and the limitations of Josephinian reforms. Markov concludes by discussing the Marxist interpretation of these events, emphasizing the continuity of bourgeois interests despite the 'withered flowers' of revolutionary pathos.
Read full textBiographical sketches of the contributors to the volume, including Urs Bitterli, Ragnhild M. Hatton, Alfred Kohler, Walter Markov, Michael Mitterauer, Gerald Stourzh, and Renate Wagner-Rieger, detailing their academic positions and major publications.
Read full textThe table of contents for the current volume, 'Fürst Bürger Mensch', followed by descriptions of other volumes in the series 'Wiener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Neuzeit', covering topics such as historical theory, forms of European Enlightenment, and social history.
Read full text