Source Book on European Governments

[Title Page and Publication Information]: The title page and publication details for the 'Source Book on European Governments', featuring contributions from various university professors on the governments of Switzerland, France, Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union in 1937. [Preface to the Source Book]: The preface explains the necessity of a source book due to rapid political changes in Europe. It outlines the selection of documents covering democracies (Switzerland and France), fascist dictatorships (Italy and Germany), and the socialist state (Soviet Union), emphasizing the inclusion of both legal and non-legal materials. [General Contents and Prefatory Note on Switzerland]: A general table of contents followed by William E. Rappard's prefatory note on the Swiss section. Rappard explains the inclusion of Napoleon's 1802 analysis, the 1848 constitutional report, the current federal constitution, the Berne cantonal constitution, and party programs. [Chapter I: Napoleon Bonaparte on the Essentials in Swiss Government, 1802]: Extracts from a letter by Napoleon Bonaparte to Swiss delegates in 1802. Napoleon argues that Switzerland's geography, languages, and history predestine it to be a federal state, emphasizing cantonal organization over central authority and the necessity of neutrality. [Chapter II: Report of the Committee which Drafted the Federal Constitution of 1848]: Official report extracts explaining the logic behind the 1848 Swiss Constitution. It discusses the rejection of a unitary state in favor of a federal system, the adoption of a bicameral legislature modeled partly on the U.S., the collective nature of the executive (Federal Council), and the ease of constitutional amendment. [Chapter III: The Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation (Articles 1-70)]: The first 70 articles of the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1874 (as amended to 1937). Covers general provisions including cantonal sovereignty, individual liberties, military obligations, federal monopolies (salt, gunpowder, alcohol), education, and religious freedoms (including the ban on Jesuits). [Chapter III: Federal Authorities and Constitutional Revision (Articles 71-123)]: Articles 71 through 123 of the Swiss Constitution, detailing the structure of the Federal Assembly (National Council and Council of States), the executive Federal Council, the Federal Tribunal, and the mechanisms for total or partial constitutional revision via popular initiative and referendum. [Chapter IV: State Constitution of the Canton of Berne (Articles 1-9)]: The opening articles of the Constitution of the Canton of Berne. It defines the canton as a democratic republic, outlines the qualifications and exclusions for suffrage, and details the mandatory referendum for laws and expenditures, as well as the right of popular initiative. [Constitution of the Canton of Berne: General Provisions and Authorities]: This segment outlines the general provisions of the Constitution of the Canton of Berne, establishing the separation of administrative and judicial powers. It details eligibility requirements for public office, prohibitions against nepotism and holding multiple offices, and the legal responsibility of state officials for their actions. Additionally, it establishes German and French as the national languages, providing specific protections for the French-speaking population regarding the publication of laws and official correspondence. [Constitution of the Canton of Berne: The Great Council]: Detailed regulations governing the Great Council of Berne, the state's supreme authority. It covers election procedures based on population census, incompatibilities for mandates, and the four-year legislative cycle. The segment enumerates nineteen specific powers of the Council, including law interpretation, treaty ratification, budgetary control, and the election of the Council of States. It also establishes procedural rules for public meetings, parliamentary immunity for members, and the requirement for two readings of every bill. [Constitution of the Canton of Berne: Administrative and Judicial Authorities]: This section describes the structure and duties of the Executive Council (the nine-member cantonal government) and the judicial system. It details the election of the Executive Council by the people, its responsibility for law execution, and its role in drafting legislation. The judicial portion establishes the Supreme Court and district courts, mandating public and oral procedures, the requirement for reasoned judgments, and the use of juries for political and press offenses. [Constitution of the Canton of Berne: Communes and General Principles]: Covers the organization of communes and the fundamental rights of citizens. It defines communal citizenship as the basis for cantonal citizenship and protects communal property. The 'General Principles' section guarantees equality before the law, individual freedom, inviolability of residence, and freedom of expression. It specifically recognizes the Evangelical Reformed, Roman Catholic, and Catholic Christian churches as national churches while guaranteeing the freedom of other worships and the neutrality of public primary schools. [Constitution of the Canton of Berne: Revision and Final Provisions]: Procedures for the total or partial revision of the Berne Constitution, requiring popular approval and potentially a constituent assembly. It concludes with final provisions asserting the Constitution as the supreme law of the state and providing the specific text for the oath of office (or secular promise) for state officials. The document is dated April 26, 1893. [Swiss Political Platforms: The Radical Party (1931)]: The 1931 program of the Swiss Radical Party (Freisinnig-demokratische Partei). It emphasizes the promotion of public welfare through freedom, equality, and private initiative. Key stances include support for national defense, the League of Nations, secular public education, and the reconciliation of social antagonisms through solidarity rather than class struggle. The platform details specific demands regarding state policy, public finance, cultural development, and economic regulations for agriculture and industry. [Swiss Political Platforms: Catholic Conservative Popular Party (1929)]: The 1929 program of the Catholic Conservative Popular Party, based on Christian social principles and the Encyclical Rerum Novarum. It rejects both economic liberalism/capitalism and socialism/communism in favor of a social order based on justice, charity, and the 'natural' community of the family and profession. It advocates for the protection of private property (with social obligations), the establishment of professional guilds to mediate class conflict, and a state role limited by the principle of subsidiarity. [Swiss Political Platforms: The Socialist Party (1935) - Principles and Analysis]: The 1935 Socialist Party program provides a Marxist analysis of Swiss society. It argues that capitalism has led to planless production, the domination of financial capital, and the impoverishment of the masses. It critiques 'bourgeois democracy' as being unable to solve the permanent economic crisis and identifies Fascism as a desperate attempt by the capitalist class to maintain domination through terror. The party's goal is the elimination of exploitation through the collective ownership of the means of production. [Swiss Political Platforms: The Socialist Party (1935) - The Labor Plan]: This segment details the 'Labor Plan' of the Swiss Socialist Party, a comprehensive proposal for the economic reorganization of Switzerland. It calls for the nationalization of large banks and insurance companies to organize credit as a public service. It proposes the creation of industrial associations to manage production and the radical relief of agricultural debt based on land production value. The plan aims to secure a sufficient livelihood for all through state-managed production and the elimination of capitalist profit motives. [Real Estate, Construction and Rent Policy]: Outlines a comprehensive housing and construction policy aimed at establishing normal relations between rents and labor incomes. It proposes measures against real estate speculation, the extension of expropriation rights for apartment and industrial construction, and the creation of a national association of builders managed by a multi-stakeholder board. [Organization of Transportation and Tourist Traffic]: Proposes the nationalization of private railroads and key transport organizations under a supreme transport council. It also details the promotion of the tourist industry through the partial nationalization of hotels into rest-houses and the regulation of private hotels via a state-managed board. [Protection of Labor and Social Insurance]: A detailed labor protection program advocating for systematic wage increases, the reduction of the work week to forty hours, and equal pay for women. It covers the regulation of home industry, domestic labor, and the establishment of compulsory unemployment and accident insurance, alongside the creation of large-scale public works to combat unemployment. [Foreign Trade, Finance, and the Economic Directorate]: Proposes a systematic organization of foreign trade based on international compensation and the development of trade with the USSR. It outlines a financial policy centered on progressive taxation, inheritance taxes, and the potential nationalization of banks, all overseen by a central Federal Economic Directorate and an advisory Economic Council. [Documents on the Government of the French Republic: Prefatory Note and Contents]: Introduction to the section on the French Republic by Walter Rice Sharp. The author explains his emphasis on contemporary political behavior over historical documents and provides a table of contents covering constitutional foundations, parties, elections, the executive, and the administrative system. [The Constitution of the Third Republic: Historical Context]: Provides historical background on the French Constitution of 1875, noting its origins as a compromise between monarchist factions and its surprising durability despite being fragmentary and lacking a bill of rights. [Constitutional Law on the Organization of the Public Powers (1875)]: The text of the 1875 law defining the powers of the French President, the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate. It establishes the seven-year presidential term, the requirement for ministerial countersignatures, and the process for constitutional revision. [Constitutional Law on the Organization of the Senate (1875)]: Defines the composition and election method of the French Senate. It specifies the number of senators per department, the age requirements, the nine-year term with triennial renewals, and the Senate's specific powers regarding money bills and its role as a Court of Justice. [Constitutional Law on the Relations of the Public Powers (1875)]: Regulates the interactions between the President and the two chambers. It covers the timing of sessions, the President's power to negotiate treaties (subject to parliamentary vote for specific types), the declaration of war, and the rules for impeachment and parliamentary immunity. [Constitutional Amendment and the Role of Custom]: Discusses the flexibility of the French Constitution through formal amendment and political custom. It highlights the 1926 amendment regarding the debt amortization fund and explains how customs have shaped the role of the President of the Council and the use (or disuse) of the right of dissolution. [Organization of French Political Parties: Radical Socialist Party]: Detailed constitution of the Radical Socialist Party, outlining membership requirements, the structure of the National Party Congress, the powers of the Executive Committee, and party financial regulations. It reflects the pivotal role of this party in the Third Republic. [Party Membership and Election Manifestos]: Examines the practicalities of party membership and the use of election manifestos. Includes a sample membership form for the Republican Federation and the 1936 Socialist Party manifesto, which calls for the defense of democracy against fascism and the nationalization of the Bank of France. [Program of the Popular Front (1936)]: The joint program of the Radicals, Socialists, and Communists for the 1936 elections. It focuses on the defense of liberty against fascist leagues, the organization of international peace through collective security, and economic demands including the 40-hour week and the nationalization of war industries. [The Electoral System for the Chamber of Deputies]: Describes the single-member district system (scrutin uninominal) used in France. It details the 1927 election law, including requirements for absolute majorities on the first ballot, the role of the counting commission, and the regulations regarding campaign literature and ballots. [Election Mechanics and Visual Propaganda]: Covers the formal decree calling the 1936 elections and explains the 'short ballot' concept in France. It also illustrates the use of political cartoons as campaign tools, showing examples of Communist anti-fascist appeals and Rightist anti-Soviet propaganda. [The Blum Government Declaration (1936)]: The inaugural declaration of the Léon Blum government to Parliament in June 1936. It outlines an ambitious legislative agenda including the 40-hour week, collective contracts, paid vacations, and the reform of the Bank of France, while asserting a commitment to republican order and international peace. [Parliamentary Control Over the Executive]: This section examines the mechanisms by which the French Parliament exercises control over the Executive, including legislative rejection, tax refusal, and committees of inquiry. It focuses heavily on the 'interpellation'—a formal question leading to debate and potential votes of no confidence—and the rules governing written and oral questions. André Siegfried and other commentators provide analysis on the tension between parliamentary interference and the permanent administrative bureaucracy. [Abuses of Parliamentary Control and Cabinet Instability]: Former Prime Minister André Tardieu critiques the French governmental system, specifically targeting cabinet instability and the 'tyranny' of parliamentary committees. He argues that the Executive is victimized by parliamentary chicanery and advocates for an effective power of dissolution, similar to British practice, to prevent lobby intrigues and stabilize the government. [Delegation of Emergency Legislative Power to the Executive]: An analysis of the French Executive's ordinance power and the delegation of emergency legislative authority. It details how Parliament granted the Cabinet the power to legislate by decree during fiscal and monetary crises in 1926, 1934, and 1935, effectively creating periods of 'constitutional dictatorship' to defend the franc and implement administrative economies. [The Legislative Process: Committee System and Procedure]: This section details the organization and functions of the standing committees in the Chamber of Deputies. It covers the election of committee members based on proportionality, the process for introducing government and private member bills, and the specific rules for debating, amending, and reporting legislation back to the Chamber. [French Budget Making and Parliamentary Prerogatives]: Edgard Allix provides a detailed critique of the French budgetary process, highlighting the Minister of Finance's lack of legal authority over other ministers and the tendency of parliamentary committees to 'shatter' the Executive's financial plans. The section also discusses the Finance Act of 1934, which attempted to restrict the ability of deputies to propose expenditures without corresponding revenue sources. [Legislative Planning: The National Economic Council]: This section describes the evolution and reorganization of the National Economic Council (N.E.C.) as a body for functional representation. It outlines the Council's role in studying economic problems, arbitrating industrial disputes, and providing technical advice to the Cabinet and Parliament. The text includes excerpts from the 1936 law defining its professional sections and general assembly composition. [Interest Groups and the Final Legislative Product]: André Tardieu discusses the influence of specialized interest 'blocs' (e.g., wine-growers, beet sugar producers, veterans) on French deputies, arguing that these pressures undermine the national interest. The section concludes with an example of the 'final legislative product': the 1936 Law Establishing the Forty Hour Week, illustrating the French style of concise statutory drafting followed by administrative decrees. [The Administrative System: Central Organization and Cabinet Secretariat]: J. Boucheron outlines the history and structure of French ministerial departments, emphasizing the Napoleonic legacy of centralization and the specialization of functions. The section also details the 1934-1936 efforts to create a permanent Cabinet Secretariat (Presidency of the Council) to coordinate the increasingly complex administrative services of the state. [The Career Civil Service: Recruitment and Status]: This section examines the French career civil service, focusing on the merit-based recruitment system and the lack of a unified civil service code. It provides specific details on the prestigious Treasury Inspectorate and the rigorous examinations for junior clerks, including salary scales and the legal right of officials to access their personal records (dossiers) in disciplinary cases. [Administrative Syndicalism in the French Civil Service]: This segment examines the rise and evolution of administrative syndicalism among French state employees. It details the movement's shift from revolutionary ideologies (inspired by Georges Sorel) toward professional status improvement and administrative reform. The text analyzes the four main activities of staff unions: social welfare, economic defense, administrative improvement, and political dissemination. It specifically addresses the controversial use of strikes in the public sector, the legal ambiguity surrounding collective work cessation, and the movement's role in replacing patronage with competitive recruitment and merit-based promotion. [The Impact of Syndicalism on Administrative Reform and Bureaucracy]: A continuation of the analysis of French civil service unionism, focusing on its contributions to administrative modernization and its resistance to 'scientific management' (Taylorism) due to fears of favoritism. The text explores the political influence of organized 'fonctionnaires' as a voting bloc and the legal restrictions on their public expression. It concludes with a critique of the 'bureaucratic psychosis' in France, characterized by excessive formalism, secretiveness, and a rigid hierarchical principle that often stifles individual initiative and efficiency. [Industrial and Commercial Courts in France]: This segment describes the specialized 'courts of experts' in France: the industrial courts (conseils de prud'hommes) and commercial courts (tribunaux de commerce). It explains their origin under Napoleon, their composition (elected representatives of employers and employees/traders), and the rationale that experts in a field are better suited to judge disputes of fact and custom than professional judges. It also notes criticisms of the commercial courts regarding their reliance on 'arbitres-rapporteurs'. [The French Bar and Civil Procedure]: A detailed look at the organization of the French legal profession, distinguishing between the 'avocat' (barrister) and the 'avoué' (solicitor). It highlights the hereditary nature of certain ministerial offices, the corporate discipline of the 'Ordre des Avocats', and the unique procedures of French civil trials, where judges take a paternalistic role in questioning witnesses in chambers rather than in open court. The text emphasizes the high cultural and educational standards required for the French bar. [The Council of State: Supreme Court of Administrative Justice]: Dean Henri Berthélémy explains the evolution of the Council of State (Conseil d'État) from a Napoleonic advisory body to the supreme tribunal for administrative justice. The text clarifies the French interpretation of the separation of powers—where administration and ordinary justice are independent—and explains how the Council protects citizens against state abuses through the 'recours pour excès de pouvoir' and state liability based on risk rather than just fault. [Arguments Against Judicial Review in the French System]: This segment presents the legal arguments against the introduction of judicial review of legislation in France. M. Carré de Malberg argues that under the Constitution of 1875, Parliament is the sole judge of the constitutionality of its own acts. He contends that the judiciary lacks the competence to interpret the Constitution against the legislature and that any shift toward judicial review would require a fundamental constitutional amendment to the absolute legislative supremacy of Parliament. [Parliament and the Control of Foreign Policy]: This section examines the mechanisms of parliamentary control over French foreign policy, including the power of the purse, interpellations, and votes of confidence. It features two primary source documents: a 1935 speech by Premier Pierre Laval defending his role in the controversial Hoare-Laval peace proposals regarding the Italo-Ethiopian conflict, and a 1936 declaration by the Blum Government outlining the Popular Front's foreign policy objectives, emphasizing collective security and the League of Nations. [Laval's Report to the Chamber on the Hoare-Laval Proposals]: A detailed report by Premier Laval to the French Chamber of Deputies regarding the failed Hoare-Laval peace plan. Laval defends his diplomatic efforts as being in conformity with the League of Nations Covenant while attempting to avoid a general European war. He discusses the application of economic sanctions against Italy, the commitment of French military aid to Britain under Article XVI, and the necessity of regional pacts to bolster collective security. [The Blum Government's Declaration on Foreign Policy]: The first general declaration on foreign policy by the Blum Government in June 1936. It articulates a vision of 'indivisible peace' and fidelity to the League of Nations. Key policy points include the raising of sanctions against Italy following the Ethiopian defeat, the proposal to reform League procedures (specifically Article XI) to prevent aggression, the pursuit of regional assistance pacts, and a call for international disarmament and the nationalization of war material manufacture. [Parliamentary Consent to the Ratification of Treaties]: An explanation of the constitutional requirements for treaty ratification in the Third Republic, noting that while the Executive has broad powers, specific categories (peace, commerce, finance, territory) require parliamentary consent. It includes the 1936 law authorizing the ratification of the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Pact. [Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: The Rhineland Crisis]: This section discusses the emergence of radio as a tool for government communication with the public. It features Premier Albert Sarraut's 1936 radio appeal following Germany's unilateral repudiation of the Locarno Pact and the reoccupation of the Rhineland. Sarraut recounts the history of the demilitarized zone and justifies France's refusal to negotiate under the menace of military force. [Representation in the League of Nations]: A brief overview of how France is represented in the League of Nations, followed by the official decree appointing the French delegation to the 16th Assembly in 1936, including prominent figures like Léon Blum and Yvon Delbos. [Liberty and Democracy: The Declaration of the Rights of Man]: An introduction to the status of civil liberties in the Third Republic, noting the absence of a formal bill of rights in the 1875 Constitution and the continued reliance on the 1789 Declaration. The full text of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen is provided, outlining seventeen articles on natural rights, equality, and the rule of law. [Separation of Church and State]: A summary and excerpt of the 1905 law that abrogated the Napoleonic Concordat and established the legal basis for secularism (laïcité) in France, ensuring liberty of conscience and ending state subsidies for religious cults. [Dissolution of the Political Leagues]: This section details the legal actions taken by the French government in 1936 to dissolve fascistic 'political leagues' viewed as private militias. It includes the report to the President and the specific decree dissolving Colonel de la Rocque's 'Croix de Feu' (Mouvement social français des Croix de Feu) on the grounds of threatening public order and the authority of the State. [A Defense of Democracy and Peace: Premier Blum's Address]: A transcript of a 1936 radio broadcast by Premier Léon Blum defending democratic principles against the rise of authoritarianism in Europe. Blum argues that democracy provides stability and order, cites the examples of Britain and the United States, and reaffirms France's commitment to the League of Nations and the concept of 'indivisible peace' while respecting the sovereignty of other nations. [The France of Tomorrow: Plan du 9 Juillet]: An extensive outline of the 'Plan du 9 Juillet' (1934), a reform program proposed by young intellectuals to modernize the French state. The plan advocates for strengthening the executive, reforming the legislature (including a technical National Economic Council), administrative decentralization into twenty regions, civil service professionalization, and structural economic reforms to replace the profit motive with social service. It also addresses educational reform, press freedom, and a pragmatic foreign policy aimed at European cooperation. [Conclusion to the French Program and Introduction to Fascist Italy]: The segment concludes a discussion on social equilibrium and technical progress before transitioning to a new section on the Fascist Government of Italy. Herbert W. Schneider provides a prefatory note outlining the selection of documents, emphasizing the revolutionary nature of the Grand Council of Fascism and the legal basis of the dictatorship. [Table of Contents: Documents on the Fascist Government of Italy]: A detailed table of contents for the section on the Fascist Government of Italy, listing eleven major documents including laws on executive power, the National Fascist Party constitution, the Labor Charter, and addresses by Mussolini. [I. The Constitution of the Grand Council of Fascism]: This section details the transformation of the Grand Council of Fascism from a party organ into a supreme organ of the State. It outlines the Council's composition, including the Head of the Government as President, the Quadrumvirs of the March on Rome, and various ministers. It specifies the Council's deliberative powers over constitutional matters such as royal succession, international treaties, and the nomination of the Prime Minister. [II. The Law on the Powers and Prerogatives of the Head of the Government]: The Law of December 24, 1925, which redefined the role of the Prime Minister, making him responsible only to the King rather than Parliament. It grants the Head of the Government control over the legislative agenda and establishes severe penalities for attempts against his life or dignity. [III. The Law on the Power of the Executive Branch to Make Decrees]: The Law of January 31, 1926, which empowered the Italian executive to issue regulations with the force of law. While technically requiring parliamentary ratification, the law effectively stripped Parliament of its initiative and control over state administration and urgency-based legislation. [IV. The Constitution of the National Fascist Party (1932)]: The 1932 revision of the P.N.F. Constitution, defining the party as a civil militia under the Leader's orders. It details the hierarchical structure from the Secretary down to local Fasci, the integration of youth organizations (Balilla, Avanguardisti), the military-style discipline, and the administrative procedures for party property and membership. [V. The Law Concerning the Legal Discipline of Collective Labor Relations]: The foundational 1926 law of the Corporative State. It establishes the legal recognition of specific syndicates for employers and employees, mandates collective labor contracts, and prohibits strikes and lock-outs. It introduces the Labor Courts (Magistratura del Lavoro) as the final arbiter for industrial disputes and outlines penalties for non-compliance. [VI. The Labor Charter (Carta del Lavoro)]: The 1927 Labor Charter defining the moral and economic unity of the Italian nation. It establishes labor as a social duty, asserts the State's right to intervene in the economy when private initiative fails, and outlines worker guarantees including weekly rest, paid vacations, and indemnities for dismissal. [Labor Charter: Insurance, Aid, and Education]: Articles 25 through 30 of the Fascist Labor Charter detailing the principles of social cooperation in insurance, mutual aid, and education. It outlines the State's goals for perfecting accident, maternity, and sickness insurance while mandating that occupational associations provide vocational instruction and support the Dopolavoro movement. [The Law of June 18, 1931: Provincial Councils of Corporative Economy]: Full text of Law No. 875 regarding the composition and functions of the Provincial Councils of Corporative Economy. It details the administrative structure involving Prefects, Presidential Boards, and General Councils, and defines their duties in coordinating technical-economic activities, supervising welfare work, and managing employment agencies at the provincial level. [The Law of February 5, 1934, on the Corporations]: Text of Law No. 163 establishing the Corporations as formal bodies for the cooperative regulation of economic affairs. It defines the powers of Corporations to make rules for collective regulation, fix rates and prices, and act as boards of arbitration for labor disputes, marking a shift from separate syndicates to integrated corporative bodies. [Mussolini's Address to the National Council of Corporations (1933)]: A major speech by Mussolini analyzing the history of capitalism from its dynamic phase (1830-1870) to its decadent 'super-capitalism' phase. He argues that the global economic crisis is a crisis of the system itself, necessitating the burial of economic liberalism and the rise of the Corporative State to regulate production and ensure social welfare. [Mussolini's Address to the Senate (1934)]: Mussolini's speech to the Senate defending the Law on Corporations. He discusses the evolution of the joint stock company, critiques both economic liberalism and communism, and explains the Fascist approach to private property and state intervention, emphasizing that the State only intervenes when private initiative is deficient. [Mussolini's Address on Economic Autonomy (1936)]: Mussolini outlines a plan for Italian economic autonomy (autarky) in response to League of Nations sanctions and the threat of war. He details Italy's resource inventory, the nationalization or control of 'key industries' related to defense, and the planned replacement of the Chamber of Deputies with the Chamber of Fasci and Corporations. [Typical Decisions of the Labor Courts]: A collection of legal summaries from various Italian Labor Courts (Brescia, Rome, Turin, Genoa, Trieste). The cases cover disputes over wage classifications, indemnity for dismissal, the jurisdiction of courts over specific industries like aviation, and the interpretation of the forty-hour work week agreement. [A Collective Contract: Metallurgical Workers (1928)]: The text of the 1928 collective contract for the mechanical and metallurgical industries. It establishes worker classifications (specialized, qualified, manual, etc.), industry categories, and the methodology for determining minimum wage scales based on 1926 averages, serving as a model for Fascist industrial regulation. [Collective Contract for the Italian Metal and Mechanical Industry]: A detailed collective contract governing the Italian metal and mechanical industries under the Fascist regime. It outlines provisions for employment agencies, medical examinations, trial periods, and the standard eight-hour workday. It further specifies regulations for piece-work, overtime pay scales, holiday recognition, and vacation rights. The document also establishes strict factory discipline, including penalties for absences and tool maintenance, while defining the hierarchical relationship between workers and superiors. It concludes with general provisions highlighting the contract's national character and its alignment with the Labor Charter and Fascist national interests. [Documents on the Nazi Government of Germany: Preface and Table of Contents]: Prefatory note and table of contents for a collection of documents regarding the Nazi government of Germany, compiled by James K. Pollock. The preface emphasizes the use of official German statutes to illustrate the structure of the Nazi state and warns students to evaluate sources critically to avoid propaganda. The contents list 34 items including the Nazi Party Program, the Enabling Act, the German Municipal Code, and various speeches by Adolf Hitler. [Program of the National Socialist German Workers' Party]: The 25-point program of the NSDAP (Nazi Party) as proclaimed in 1920. It demands the union of all Germans, the abrogation of the Treaties of Versailles and St. Germain, and defines citizenship strictly by German blood, explicitly excluding Jews. Economic demands include the nationalization of trusts, profit-sharing, and the 'breaking of interest slavery.' It also outlines social policies regarding education, health, and the creation of a strong central power in the Reich. A footnote includes Hitler's 1928 clarification on land expropriation, specifying it applies to land illegally acquired or held by Jewish companies. [The Enabling Act and the New Structure of the Reich]: Legal documents establishing the foundation of the Nazi dictatorship. The Enabling Act (March 24, 1933) transfers legislative power from the Reichstag to the National Cabinet, allowing for laws that deviate from the constitution. The Law for the New Structure of the Reich (January 30, 1934) abolishes state legislatures, transfers state rights to the Reich, and subordinates state cabinets to the national cabinet, effectively ending federalism in Germany. [Laws Concerning the Head of State and National Governors]: Statutes consolidating executive power under Adolf Hitler. The Law Concerning the Head of the German Reich (August 1, 1934) merges the offices of President and Chancellor following Hindenburg's death. The Law Relating to National Governors (January 30, 1935) defines the role of the 'Reichsstatthalter' as the permanent representative of the national cabinet in regional districts, ensuring the observation of Hitler's policies and granting the leader power over state appointments and pardons. [Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda and Judicial Centralization]: Decrees establishing the Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels, detailing its vast jurisdiction over press, radio, art, theater, and education to influence the nation's 'mental state.' It also includes the Law Centralizing the Administration of Justice (January 31, 1935), which transferred all state judicial powers and personnel to the Reich. [Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]: A series of laws and decrees (starting April 7, 1933) aimed at 'restoring' the civil service by purging it of 'non-Aryan' (Jewish) individuals and political opponents (Communists and Social Democrats). It defines 'non-Aryan' descent, establishes the 'front-fighter' exception for Jewish veterans, and mandates that all officials must guarantee unreserved support for the national state. It also addresses the dismissal of female officials and the reduction of state-level salaries to match national standards. [The German Municipal Code of 1935]: The German Municipal Code (January 30, 1935), which standardized local government across the Reich according to Nazi ideology. It emphasizes the 'leadership principle' (Führerprinzip), placing full responsibility on the mayor (Bürgermeister) while ensuring harmony with the Nazi Party through a party agent. The code defines the rights and duties of inhabitants and citizens, the process for territorial changes, and the requirement for municipal actions to align with the aims of the central government. [The German Municipal Code of 1935: Mayors and Executive Officers]: Detailed regulations regarding the appointment, representation, and qualifications of mayors (Oberbürgermeister) and executive officers (Beigeordnete) under the 1935 German Municipal Code. It emphasizes the required harmony between the municipal administration and the Nazi party, outlining the veto power of the NSDAP agent and the hierarchical oversight by the National Governor and Minister of the Interior. [The German Municipal Code of 1935: Municipal Councillors and Advisers]: Statutes governing the role of municipal councillors (Gemeinderäte) and specialized advisers (Beiräte). The text defines their duty to advise the mayor and explain his actions to the citizenry, while detailing the selection process controlled by the NSDAP agent and the specific list of 'important matters' where the mayor is legally obligated to consult the council. [The German Municipal Code of 1935: Municipal Economy and Property]: Regulations concerning the management of municipal capital, property, and economic activities. It mandates economical administration, restricts the acquisition and sale of property, and sets strict conditions for the establishment or expansion of municipal business enterprises, including a prohibition on municipal banking. [The German Municipal Code of 1935: Debts, Budgeting, and Finance]: Comprehensive rules for municipal financial planning, including the taking up of loans, the creation of the annual budget, and the management of the treasury. It establishes the legal responsibility of officials for financial losses and outlines the auditing process conducted by the comptroller's office and supervisory authorities. [The German Municipal Code of 1935: Supervision and Concluding Provisions]: Provisions detailing the state's supervisory power over municipalities to ensure alignment with 'State leadership'. It grants the Minister of the Interior authority to revoke municipal orders, appoint commissioners, and issue transitional regulations. Notably, the law excludes the capital city of Berlin from its application. [Laws Safeguarding the Unity of Party and State]: A collection of laws from 1933 and 1935 that established the NSDAP as the sole legal political party in Germany and integrated it into the state apparatus. It defines the party as a corporation of public law, lists its constituent units (like the SS and SA), and establishes special party jurisdiction over its members. [Law Concerning the Secret State Police (Gestapo)]: The 1936 law defining the duties and jurisdiction of the Secret State Police (Gestapo). It tasks the agency with exposing forces dangerous to the state and explicitly removes its orders and business from the review of administrative courts, placing it under the leadership of the Minister President (Göring). [Laws on Referenda, Suffrage, and Election Results]: Legal documents and statistical data regarding the use of referenda and elections in Nazi Germany. Includes the 1933 Law Concerning Referenda, the 1936 Suffrage Law, facsimiles of ballots used to consolidate Hitler's power, and a detailed table of results from the March 1936 Reichstag election showing near-unanimous support. [The Nuremberg Laws: Reich Citizenship and Racial Purity]: The foundational 'Nuremberg Laws' of 1935, including the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor. These statutes stripped Jews of citizenship and political rights, prohibited marriages and sexual relations between Jews and those of 'German blood', and defined 'Jewishness' based on ancestry. [Reich Flag Law and the Re-establishment of Conscription]: Documents relating to the symbolic and military reassertion of the German state. It includes the law establishing the swastika as the national flag and the 1935 proclamation renouncing the disarmament provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, which formally re-established universal military conscription and the organization of the Wehrmacht. [Law for National Defense and Reich Property Inheritance]: Regulations on national defense and agricultural inheritance. The defense law restricts military service and promotion to those of 'Aryan descent'. The Reich Property Inheritance Law (Erbhofgesetz) aims to preserve the 'peasantry as the blood source of the German people' by making agricultural properties hereditary, unsaleable, and restricted to citizens of German blood. [Hereditary Peasant Law: Citizenship and Blood Requirements]: This segment outlines the racial and citizenship requirements for being a 'peasant' under Nazi law, specifically mandating German or kindred blood and setting January 1, 1800, as the threshold for proving ancestry. [National Labor Service Law and Supplementary Orders]: The National Labor Service Law of 1935 establishes universal compulsory labor for German youth to instill National Socialist values and respect for manual labor. It includes provisions for administrative jurisdiction under the Minister of the Interior, exclusion of non-Aryans, and specific orders regarding the strength and duration of service for both men and women. [An American Student's Impressions of the German Labor Service Camp 'Westerwald']: A descriptive account by an American exchange student visiting a German Labor Service camp. The text highlights the social, educational, and military aims of the service, emphasizing the goal of eliminating class discord (Volksgemeinschaft) and the rigorous, Spartan lifestyle of the participants. [Fusion of Industrial Business with the German Labour Front]: This agreement details the integration of industrial business organizations into the German Labour Front (DAF). It establishes the Reich Council of Labour and Industry to discuss business and social policy, replaces class-based organizations with a community of 'works leaders' and 'gangs', and includes an ordinance from Hitler approving the fusion to ensure national economic unity. [The Development of the German Educational Plan, 1934-1935]: A comprehensive overview of Nazi educational reforms under Minister Bernhard Rust. It describes the shift from intellectualism to character-building, the introduction of the 'Landjahr' (country year), the integration of the Hitler Youth into school life, and the revision of curricula to emphasize biology, heredity, and racial hygiene. It also covers the reorganization of teacher training and technical/agrarian schools to align with National Socialist ideology. [President Hindenburg's Political Testament]: The final testament of President von Hindenburg, reflecting on Germany's collapse in 1918 and its subsequent recovery. He expresses his hope for national unity, praises the Reichswehr as the foundation of the state, and offers his endorsement of Adolf Hitler's movement as the fulfillment of his desire for a unified German people. [Speech of Chancellor Adolf Hitler Before the Reichstag on March 23, 1933]: Hitler's speech advocating for the Enabling Act. He blames the 'November criminals' and Marxism for Germany's decline, justifies the suppression of Communism following the Reichstag fire, and outlines his program for moral, legal, and economic purging. He discusses the role of the Church, the importance of the peasantry, and Germany's demand for equal rights in international disarmament and debt negotiations. [Speech of Chancellor Hitler to the Reich Commissioners, July 6, 1933]: In this speech, Hitler declares the end of the revolutionary phase and the beginning of evolution. He emphasizes that business ability must take precedence over political loyalty to solve unemployment and warns party offices against interfering with the functions of the formal government. [Memorial of the Confessional Movement of the German Evangelical Church]: A protest document from leaders of the Confessional Church addressed to Hitler. It criticizes the state's attempt to de-Christianize Germany, the arbitrary interpretation of 'Positive Christianity' by Nazi leaders like Rosenberg and Goebbels, and the systematic destruction of church independence through state-imposed committees and the arrest of pastors. [De-confessionalizing and the National Socialist View of Life]: This section details the Nazi state's efforts to 'de-confessionalize' German public life by undermining the Evangelical Church's influence. It describes the co-opting of youth organizations, the restriction of pastoral work in labor camps, and the systematic removal of Christian elements from schools. The text further explores the National Socialist 'view of life' (Weltanschauung), which elevates race, blood, and honor to eternal qualities, directly challenging Christian commandments and the doctrine of universal sinfulness. [Morality, Justice, and the Corruption of the Oath]: The Evangelical Church expresses profound anxiety over a new system of morality based on 'what serves the people' rather than divine commandment. This section critiques the devaluation of the oath through excessive use in political pledges, the lack of judicial control over the secret state police (Gestapo), and the existence of concentration camps. It concludes with a memorandum from the provisional administration of the German Evangelical Church to Hitler, warning against the deification of the Fuehrer and the de-Christianization of the nation. [Racial Theory and National Socialist Political Thought]: An analysis of how National Socialism substituted racial determinism for Marxian economic materialism. The text explains the concept of the 'völkischer Staat' (folkish state), where the state is merely a means to preserve the racial existence of the 'Aryan' or 'Nordic' man. It details the pseudo-scientific claims of Nordic cultural monopoly and the characterization of the Jew as a 'parasite' without culture-creative power. The section highlights how these theories serve as a rationalization for anti-Semitic policies and the subordination of the individual to the racial collective. [National Socialism: Theory and Practice - Economic and Social Context]: This segment examines the historical and economic conditions that birthed National Socialism, including the failures of the Weimar Republic, the Treaty of Versailles, and the Great Depression. It discusses the movement's appeal to the 'forgotten man'—the middle class and unemployed—who looked to the state for salvation. The text analyzes the economic theories of Gottfried Feder, specifically the distinction between 'exploitive' (Jewish) and 'creative' (Aryan) capital, and the party's 1932 economic program calling for state control and autarchy. [The 'Folk' Idea and Nazi Foreign Policy]: An exploration of the 'Folk' (Völkische) ideology, rooted in 19th-century racial theories, which posits race as destiny. It explains how Alfred Rosenberg translated these ideas into a foreign policy aimed at an alliance with Britain and the conquest of 'room expansion' (Lebensraum) in the East. The mission is framed as a defense of the white race against 'Jewish-Mongol' Bolshevism. The text also touches on the use of revolutionary cells in neighboring countries to destabilize them from within. [Germany as a War-Time Economy and Social Control]: The author argues that the Nazi state is essentially a war-time economy characterized by total centralization, 'Gleichschaltung' (coordination), and the suppression of labor unions in favor of industrial feudalism. It examines the reorganization of agriculture under Walter Darré, including the Hereditary Farms Act. The section concludes by explaining Hitler's mass support through psychological and emotional factors—substituting a sense of 'belonging' and national participation for material wealth—while noting that the system's reliance on a perceived enemy makes foreign policy its 'Achilles heel.' [The Political Theory of German Fascism]: This section provides a systematic summary of Nazi political thought, contrasting it with Marxian and Freudian perspectives. It describes the movement as a mystical, anti-rational faith centered on 'Blut und Boden' (Blood and Soil). The text traces the roots of Nazi anti-Semitism and the Aryan myth through Gobineau and Chamberlain, explaining how the 'forgotten man' of the petty bourgeoisie (Kleinbürgertum) was mobilized by deflecting economic resentment toward the Jews. It identifies key texts like 'Mein Kampf' and the 25-point party program as the movement's 'bible' and 'catechism.' [The Racial State and the New Socialism]: A detailed look at the 'Racial State' and the Nazi version of 'Socialism.' It discusses the anthropological classifications of Hans Gunther and the resulting policies of race hygiene and sterilization. The 'New Socialism' is defined as a national, anti-Marxist doctrine that protects private property while breaking 'interest slavery' (Zinsknechtschaft). The text notes that in practice, this socialism has meant the destruction of independent unions and the coordination of the economy for national strength rather than a revolutionary change in ownership. [The Third Reich: Nazi State Theory and the Führerprinzip]: This section examines the political ideology of the Third Reich, characterizing it as an organic, corporative, and authoritarian state that rejects democratic parliamentarianism in favor of the rule of an elite under a dictator. It traces the genetic development of Nazi theory from the party's early 'Twenty-five Points' through the writings of Feder, Moeller van den bruck, and Hitler's 'Mein Kampf'. The text explains the 'Führerprinzip' (leadership principle), where authority flows from the top down and responsibility from the bottom up, and describes how the Nazi state utilizes high-pressure propaganda and the Ministry of Enlightenment to ensure unanimous conformity and psychological preparation for a heroic military mission. [Intellectual Roots and Historical Context of German Fascism]: An analysis of the historical and intellectual lineage of Nazi ideology, identifying it as a synthesis of existing German word-patterns and mass emotions rather than a de novo creation. The author identifies influences ranging from Tacitus and Frederick the Great to the 'Aryan myth' of Gobineau and Chamberlain, Hegel's state absolutism, and Nietzsche's gospel of the Superman. It also compares German National Socialism with Italian Fascism and Japanese ultra-nationalism, suggesting that their similarities arise from similar post-war socioeconomic pressures and the frustration of national ambitions rather than direct imitation. [Documents on the Government of the Soviet Union: Prefatory Note and Contents]: Introductory materials for a collection of documents regarding the Soviet Union, edited by Samuel N. Harper. The prefatory note explains the selection criteria, emphasizing the role of the Communist Party, the flexibility of Soviet constitutions, and the use of full texts to preserve the original propaganda elements. A table of contents lists ten major documents, including the Party Program, the Rules of the Party, and various versions of the Soviet Constitution. [The Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1919)]: The official program of the Communist Party adopted in 1919, outlining the transition from capitalism to a communist society. It provides a Marxist critique of capitalist production, crises of overproduction, and the 'imperialist' stage of financial capital. The document argues that bourgeois democracy is a mask for the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie and asserts that the Soviet form of government is the only path to the emancipation of labor. It defines the immediate tasks of the Party in suppressing the resistance of exploiters while expanding rights for the working masses. [Soviet General Politics, Nationalities, and Military Affairs]: This section details the Party's specific policy goals regarding state administration, ethnic relations, and the military. It contrasts Soviet democracy with bourgeois parliamentarianism, emphasizing the electoral unit of the factory and the goal of inducing all working masses into state administration to combat bureaucratism. It outlines a policy of national equality and the right to separation as a temporary measure toward unity. Finally, it defines the Red Army as a class-based instrument requiring political commissars and military training for all proletarians. [Soviet Jurisprudence, Education, and Religious Policy]: An outline of the Party's program for social and cultural transformation. In jurisprudence, it describes the replacement of bourgeois courts with People's Courts guided by 'socialist conscience' and the goal of replacing punishment with education. In education, it mandates free, compulsory technical education up to age 17 and the creation of a 'uniform industrial school' to prepare members for a communist society. Regarding religion, the Party aims to destroy ties between the exploiting classes and religious propaganda while conducting scientific-educational anti-religious work. [Economic Policy and the Socialization of Production]: This segment details the economic transition, focusing on the expropriation of the bourgeoisie and the concentration of economic activity under a state plan. It emphasizes the role of trade unions in managing socialized industry and the necessity of utilizing 'bourgeois specialists' (scientists and technicians) by offering them higher remuneration as a temporary measure. The text stresses the importance of 'comradely discipline' and the re-education of the masses to increase productivity as the foundation of the socialist system. [Agriculture, Distribution, and Financial Systems in the USSR]: A comprehensive look at the Party's rural and financial strategies. It describes the establishment of Soviet farms and agricultural communes, and the policy of supporting the rural poor while neutralizing the 'kulaks' (rich peasants). In distribution, the goal is to replace private trade with a national network of consumers' communes. The financial section details the nationalization of banks and the long-term goal of abolishing money in favor of checks and budget books as the society moves toward a central bookkeeping system. [Social Welfare, Housing, and Public Health in the Soviet Program]: This section covers the social pillars of the 1919 Program. It discusses the transformation of the state budget into a budget of public economy, the expropriation of capitalist housing for workers, and the implementation of the 'Code of Labor Laws' (including the 8-hour day and social insurance). It also outlines public health goals, including the nationalization of drug stores and the implementation of large-scale sanitary measures to prevent infectious and social diseases. [The Rules of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1934)]: The formal organizational rules of the CPSU as of 1934. It defines the Party as the 'organized vanguard of the proletariat' and a 'militant organization' held together by iron discipline. The rules detail the duties of members, the four categories of applicants based on social background (workers, collective farmers, etc.), and the rigorous process of admission and candidateship. It also explicitly lists the criteria for 'purging' the party of alien elements, careerists, and 'double-dealers'. [Organizational Structure and Central Institutions of the CPSU]: A detailed breakdown of the Party's hierarchical structure based on 'democratic centralism'. It describes the levels of organization from the All-Union Congress and Central Committee down to regional, city, and primary units. It defines the roles of the Political Bureau (Politburo), Organizational Bureau (Orgburo), and Secretariat. The section also explains the creation of production-branch departments to supervise economic and Soviet organs, and the function of the Commission of Party Control in enforcing discipline. [Local and Primary Party Organizations: Functions and Leadership]: This final segment of the Party Rules focuses on city, district, and primary organizations. It establishes the requirements for secretaries (years of party standing) and the role of primary organizations in factories, farms, and offices. These primary units are tasked with agitational work, mobilizing masses for production plans, and ensuring labor discipline. The rules also specify the conditions under which Party workers may be exempt from their regular jobs to perform full-time Party duties. [IX. Party Organizations in the Red Army]: Outlines the structure and guidance of Communist Party work within the Soviet military forces, including the Red Army, Navy, and Air Fleet. It specifies the seniority requirements for political department chiefs and mandates close contact between military political organs and local Party committees. [X. Party Groups in Non-Party Organizations]: Describes the formation and duties of Party groups within non-Party mass organizations like trade unions and co-operatives. These groups are tasked with consolidating Party influence, struggling against bureaucracy, and maintaining strict subordination to leading Party organizations. [XI. Internal Party Democracy and Party Discipline]: Defines the balance between internal Party democracy and the necessity of iron discipline. It details the conditions under which All-Union discussions are permitted and the severe penalties, including expulsion or demotion, for factionalism or failure to execute decisions from Party centers. [XII. Party Funds]: Specifies the sources of Party revenue and provides a detailed sliding scale for monthly membership dues based on wages, ranging from fixed kopek amounts to percentages of earnings for higher-paid members. [Program of the All-Union Leninist Communist Union of Youth (Komsomol)]: Presents the 1936 program for the Komsomol, defining it as a mass non-Party organization allied with the Communist Party. It details the organization's goals regarding political education, technical training, school discipline, physical culture, and the defense of the Socialist Fatherland. [IV. Declaration of Rights of the Peoples of Russia, November 2, 1917]: A foundational Soviet document signed by Lenin and Stalin establishing the principles of equality, sovereignty, and the right to free self-determination (including separation) for the various peoples and national minorities within Russia. [V. Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People]: The 1918 declaration that formed the basis of the first RSFSR Constitution. It decrees the abolition of private land ownership, the nationalization of resources and banks, the introduction of universal labor service, and the arming of the toilers to protect the revolution. [VI. Constitution of the RSFSR: General Principles and Jurisdiction]: Covers the general principles and jurisdictional limits of the RSFSR as established in the 1925 ratified text. It outlines the rights of workers (expression, assembly, education) and the supreme power of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee. [VI. Constitution of the RSFSR: Structure of Government and Local Authorities]: Detailed breakdown of the RSFSR government structure, including the central authority (Congress of Soviets, CEC, Sovnarkom), the administration of Autonomous Republics, and the hierarchy of local authorities. It also defines election eligibility, the right to recall deputies, and budgetary procedures. [VII. Constitution of the USSR: Declaration and Treaty of Formation]: The 1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union. It includes the declaration on the split between capitalist and socialist camps and the treaty defining the jurisdiction of supreme Union authorities. It establishes the rights of Union Republics, including the right to secede, and outlines the structure of the bicameral Central Executive Committee and the Supreme Court. [Chapter VIII: People's Commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]: This chapter outlines the structure and function of the People's Commissariats under the 1924 Soviet Constitution. It distinguishes between All-Union and Federated Commissariats, details the appointment of plenipotentiary representatives, and describes the internal governance of these bodies, including the role of the Collegium and the individual responsibility of Commissars to the Council of People's Commissars. [Chapter IX: United State Political Department (OGPU)]: Articles 61 through 63 define the role of the United State Political Department (OGPU) in combating counter-revolution, espionage, and banditry. It specifies the department's attachment to the Council of People's Commissars and the oversight role of the Public Prosecutor of the Supreme Court. [Chapter X: Union Republics]: This section details the supreme authority within individual Union republics, including the roles of the Congress of Soviets and the Republican Councils of People's Commissars. It establishes the hierarchy between republican organs and the central USSR authorities, specifically regarding the execution of directives and the right of amnesty. [Chapter XI: Coat of Arms, Flag and the Capital]: Articles 70 through 72 provide the official descriptions of the USSR's state symbols, including the sickle and hammer emblem, the red flag with a five-pointed star, and the designation of Moscow as the capital city. [Introduction to the 1936 Constitution (Stalin's Constitution)]: An editorial introduction to the 1936 USSR Constitution, often called 'Stalin's Constitution'. It explains the historical context of its adoption, the transition to universal suffrage and secret ballots, and the public discussion process that preceded its final adoption in December 1936. [1936 Constitution - Chapter I: Social Organization]: The opening chapter of the 1936 Constitution defines the USSR as a socialist state. It details the economic foundations of the country, distinguishing between state property (public property) and cooperative/collective-farm property, while also defining the limits of personal ownership and the obligation to work. [1936 Constitution - Chapter II: State Organization]: This chapter lists the eleven constituent republics of the USSR and defines the scope of federal jurisdiction, including foreign trade, defense, and national economic planning. It establishes the sovereignty of republics outside these limits, the right to secede, and provides a detailed list of the administrative territories and provinces within the RSFSR and other republics. [1936 Constitution - Chapter III: Supreme Organs of State Power]: Details the structure and powers of the Supreme Council of the USSR, the highest legislative body. It describes the bicameral system consisting of the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities, the election of the Presidium, and the specific powers of the Presidium to interpret laws, grant pardons, and declare a state of war. [1936 Constitution - Chapter IV: Supreme Organs of State Power of the Union Republics]: Defines the Supreme Council of each Union republic as its sole legislative organ. It outlines the council's powers to adopt republican constitutions, approve economic plans, and organize the republican government (Council of People's Commissars). [1936 Constitution - Chapter V: Organs of State Administration of the USSR]: Describes the Council of People's Commissars as the supreme executive and administrative organ of the USSR. It lists the composition of the government, the distinction between All-Union and Union-republic People's Commissariats, and the specific departments under federal control, such as Defense, Foreign Affairs, and Heavy Industry. [1936 Constitution - Chapter VI: Organs of State Administration of the Union Republics]: Outlines the executive structure of the Union republics, detailing the composition and accountability of the Republican Councils of People's Commissars. It explains the subordination of Union-republic commissariats to both the republican council and the corresponding federal commissariat. [1936 Constitution - Chapters VII & VIII: Autonomous Republics and Local Organs]: Covers the supreme organs of power in Autonomous Republics (ASSR) and the local organs of state power (Soviets of Toilers' Deputies) in territories, provinces, districts, and villages. It defines the election terms and the role of executive committees in local administration. [1936 Constitution - Chapter IX: Court and Prosecution]: Establishes the judicial system of the USSR, including the Supreme Court, regional courts, and People's Courts. It defines the role of the Prosecutor of the USSR in supervising the observance of laws and ensures the independence of judges and the right to defense in open court proceedings. [1936 Constitution - Chapter X: Basic Rights and Obligations of Citizens]: A comprehensive list of the rights and duties of Soviet citizens under the 1936 Constitution. It includes the right to work, rest, education, and material security, as well as freedoms of speech, press, and assembly. It also defines the role of the Communist Party and the obligations of citizens regarding military service and the protection of socialist property. [1936 Constitution - Chapters XI & XII: Electoral System and State Symbols]: Defines the electoral system based on universal, equal, and direct suffrage by secret ballot. It specifies the right of social organizations to put forward candidates and the accountability of deputies. The final articles describe the state emblem, flag, and the capital city of Moscow. [Chapter XIII: Procedure for Amending the Constitution]: Article 146 of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, specifying that amendments require a two-thirds majority vote in each chamber of the Supreme Council. [The Liquidation of Classes in the USSR by A. I. Stetsky]: A major theoretical essay by A. I. Stetsky analyzing the historical process and current status of class liquidation in the Soviet Union. Drawing on Stalin's interview with Roy Howard, the author argues that while exploiting classes (capitalists, landlords, kulaks) have been destroyed, distinctions remain between the working class and the peasantry based on the two forms of socialist property: state (all-people's) and cooperative-kolkhoz. The essay details the transition from the New Economic Policy to mass collectivization, the role of the new Soviet intelligentsia, and the continued necessity of the state and the vanguard role of the Party to protect public property and oversee the socialist principle of distribution according to labor. [Changes and Additions in the Codes of the RSFSR: Report by N. V. Krylenko]: A legislative report by Commissar of Justice N. V. Krylenko explaining the class-based nature of Soviet law and recent amendments to the RSFSR codes. Key topics include the rigorous law on treason to the fatherland, the expedited procedure for terrorist acts following Kirov's assassination, the criminalization of hooliganism and sodomy, and the tightening of labor discipline and parental responsibility. Krylenko emphasizes that Soviet law is a tool for class struggle and the re-education of the masses, contrasting it with bourgeois legal systems. [References and Bibliography for Soviet Government]: A list of English-language references relevant to the study of Soviet government, including the Model Statute for the Collective Farm, Stalin's speeches, and reports on the Five-Year Plan. [Index of Source Book on European Governments]: A comprehensive alphabetical subject index for the entire volume, covering topics from Administration to Youth organizations across the five countries (Switzerland, France, Italy, Germany, USSR) discussed in the book.