Soziale Probleme der Renaissance

[Front Matter and Series Information]: This segment contains the title page and series information for the 'Beihefte zur Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte', edited by Prof. Dr. G. von Below. [Front Matter and Preface]: The author introduces his work on the social problems of the Renaissance, acknowledging its incompleteness due to changing personal circumstances. He expresses gratitude to mentors like Georg von Below and Alfred Pribram, while noting the difficulty of accessing specific academic resources in Vienna libraries during the early 1920s. [Introduction: Historiography of the Renaissance]: This section reviews the evolving historiographical debate regarding the nature of the Renaissance. It contrasts the secularization thesis of Burckhardt and Troeltsch with the religious-spiritual continuity argued by Burdach and Thode, while positioning the author's focus on social and economic ideas as a relatively neglected field of study. [Economic Context: Wealth and Social Instability in Italy]: The author describes the volatile economic landscape of Renaissance Italy, characterized by extreme profit margins, the rise of the 'parvenu', and the fragility of financial institutions like the Bardi bank. He argues that the lack of social security and the rapid rise and fall of fortunes created a unique psychological climate of 'paganization' and social unrest. [The Church: Theological Perspectives on Economy and Labor]: This extensive section analyzes the Catholic Church's response to the burgeoning capitalist spirit. Through the works of Antoninus of Florence and Bernadine of Siena, the author explores the concepts of 'ordo' (divine order), the justification of trade, the condemnation of infinite greed (avaritia), and the tension between active and contemplative life. It highlights how the Church attempted to moderate economic activity within the bounds of social utility and spiritual health. [The Heretics: Radical Poverty and World Rejection]: The author examines the social and economic doctrines of heretical sects like the Cathars and Waldensians. He notes a paradox where extreme world-rejection and the ideal of radical poverty often led to the accumulation of wealth (pariah capitalism) as a means of survival against persecution, while theoretically denying the legitimacy of private property and secular authority. [Excursus on Savonarola: Political Prophecy and Social Reform]: This excursus focuses on Savonarola's unique position between orthodoxy and heresy. The author discusses Savonarola's attempt to reconcile strict Christian asceticism with the practical needs of the Florentine state, noting his promises of earthly prosperity for a godly republic and his emphasis on 'simplicity' as both an internal and external virtue. [Humanist Educational Writings and the Ideal Citizen]: The author investigates the social ideals found in Renaissance educational treatises. He contrasts the 'practical' bourgeois advice of Morelli and Alberti with the more 'idealistic' humanist goals of Vergerius and Sadolet. Central to this section is the concept of the 'perfect citizen' and the role of wealth as a tool for achieving personal independence and 'magnificence' rather than an end in itself. [Petrarch: The Romantic Individualist and the Flight from Pain]: This section presents Petrarch as a transitional figure whose social thought is rooted in a romanticized antiquity and a Stoic desire for inner peace. The author argues that Petrarch's disillusionment with political reality (specifically the failure of Cola di Rienzo) led him to advocate for a 'flight from pain' and a withdrawal into the self, valuing 'mediocritas' (the middle way) and intellectual independence over active social engagement. [Coluccio Salutati and the Humanist Ideal of Knowledge]: This section introduces Coluccio Salutati as a pivotal figure in the transition from medieval thought to Humanism. It explores the core humanist idea that knowledge (studia humana) should serve the whole person and improve the soul. The text discusses the tension between the contemplative life and the active social duty, noting that Salutati, despite his medieval roots, championed the value of social effectiveness and the belief that science has a healing power for humanity. It also touches upon the inherent aristocratism in humanism, where the educated man distinguishes himself from the 'ignorant masses'. [The Ethical and Social Philosophy of Salutati]: Engel-Janosi analyzes Salutati's stance on the primacy of the will over the intellect and his reconciliation of Christian asceticism with active civic service in Florence. The segment details Salutati's social conservatism, his disdain for the 'plebs', and his views on wealth. Influenced by Stoicism and Patristic thought, Salutati viewed economic goods as tools to be mastered rather than ends in themselves, advocating for the use of wealth to satisfy valuable needs rather than mere accumulation. [Poggio Bracciolini: Individualism and Social Withdrawal]: This section examines Poggio Bracciolini's shift toward a more reflected, literary, and eventually pessimistic worldview. Poggio critiques traditional concepts of nobility, arguing that virtue is purely individual and detached from social standing. His work 'De avaritia' is analyzed for its treatment of greed as a social vice that undermines order, while his later works reflect a Machiavellian-like pessimism regarding human nature. Ultimately, Poggio advocates for a withdrawal into rural life (otium) as the only path to virtue and intellectual peace, viewing society primarily as a protective shell for the scholar. [Poggio's Ideal of Rural Leisure and the Transition to Valla]: Poggio's idealization of ländliche Muse (rural leisure) is presented as a new social form of existence, distinct from Roman republican models. It serves as a sanctuary for studies (arx animi). The text then transitions to Lorenzo Valla, describing him as the peak of individualist enlightenment within humanism, characterized by a self-assured individualism and a focus on free will and consciousness. [Lorenzo Valla: Individualism, Epicureanism, and Social Utility]: Valla's philosophy is explored through his 'De voluptate' and 'De professione religiosorum'. He is depicted as a thinker who subjects even religious salvation to a logic of individual benefit and 'calculation'. Valla rejects the inherent moral superiority of monastic life, asserting that the value of a person is determined by their earthly conduct and subjective virtue. Socially, he justifies the existence of society through the lens of individual utility and the division of labor, suggesting that free competition and the pursuit of personal benefit ultimately serve the collective good. [Giovanni Pontano: The Magnanimous Statesman and Natural Order]: The final section focuses on Giovanni Pontano, the Neapolitan statesman-humanist. Pontano represents a synthesis of political action and intellectual depth. He views the social order, including the division of labor and the hierarchy of rulers and subjects, as rooted in the wisdom of Nature. Central to his thought is the 'Magnanimus' (the great-souled man), who finds his highest fulfillment in state service and the exercise of virtue. Unlike earlier humanists who favored withdrawal, Pontano champions active political life and the noble enjoyment of wealth as a means to facilitate generosity and social harmony. [Castiglione and the Ideal of the Courtier]: This section examines Baldassare Castiglione's 'Il Cortegiano' as the culmination of humanist social thought. It explores the tension between individual value and objective social structures, noting Castiglione's insistence on nobility (nobilità) as a natural, inherited force rather than a purely rational or earned status. The text argues that Castiglione represents a shift toward a more conservative, monarchical late-humanism that seeks stability in established powers and aristocratic forms, marking the transition toward a new era following the Sack of Rome. [Machiavelli: The Nature of Man and the State]: Engel-Jánosi provides a deep analysis of Machiavelli's social and political philosophy, contrasting it with earlier humanist optimism. Machiavelli is presented as a thinker who views human nature as inherently insatiable, ambitious, and prone to corruption, necessitating the state as a restraining force. The section discusses Machiavelli's views on the necessity of social conflict (class struggle between the nobility and the people) for the health of a republic, his rejection of the 'middle way', and his subordination of all social spheres—including economics—to the overarching goal of state power and survival. [Machiavelli's Economic Views and the End of the Renaissance]: The final section explores Machiavelli's specific views on wealth, poverty, and the role of economic means in statecraft. While Machiavelli recognizes the political utility of money, he warns against private wealth as a corrupting influence and advocates for a rich state but poor citizens. The text concludes by situating Machiavelli at the end of the Renaissance; his radical pessimism regarding 'Fortuna' and the ultimate meaninglessness of human success signals the collapse of the era's belief in the sovereign power of the individual.