Arbeiten zur biologischen Grundlegung der Soziologie 45ESEZ2D

[Front Matter and Table of Contents]: Front matter, title pages, and table of contents for the second volume of 'Arbeiten zur biologischen Grundlegung der Soziologie' edited by Richard Thurnwald. It lists contributors and topics including plant sociology, bird social life, human evolution, and craniology. [The Development of Plant Sociology Schools]: An overview of the three primary schools of plant sociology: the Swiss school (Schröter), the Swedish school (Fries, Du Rietz), and the North American school (Cowles, Clements). It discusses the shift from geographical descriptions to sociological units defined by statistics, constants, and the concept of the plant community as a 'complete organism' undergoing succession. [The Biological Basis of Plant Sociality]: Raymund Rapaics argues that sociality is a primary natural phenomenon shared by plants, animals, and humans. He defines plant sociology through the lens of 'work' (Arbeit), specifically chemical and physical processes like soil formation and nutrient cycling. He introduces the idea that a plant community is defined by a functional division of labor between green plants and the 'edaphon' (soil microorganisms). [Classification of Plant Social Units]: A systematic classification of plant social units based on the degree of coordination and subordination. Rapaics distinguishes between 'Ansammlungen' (loose accumulations like plankton) and 'Bestand' (stable stands with division of labor). He further defines higher-order units like 'Assoziation' and 'Formation' based on spatial (stratification) and temporal (aspects) correlations. [Settlement and Environmental Interaction]: An analysis of how plant communities interact with the inorganic world through settlement (Siedlung). Rapaics describes the 'work system' of plants in response to geological processes like erosion and sedimentation, detailing the roles of pioneers (vorarbeiter) in water, rock, and debris environments in preparing the earth for higher-order communities. [High-Order Communities: Meadows and Forests]: Discussion of meadows and forests as the highest forms of plant social organization. These communities achieve a degree of independence from the environment by creating their own microclimates and soil conditions. Rapaics concludes by noting that plant communities produce a surplus that supports the animal world, framing the plant-animal relationship as one of producer and consumer. [Introduction to Walter Zimmermann's Plant Sociology]: The beginning of Walter Zimmermann's contribution. He outlines the task of plant sociology as researching the relationships between plants in associations. He argues for the necessity of connecting plant sociology with human sociology, criticizing the lack of interdisciplinary dialogue regarding concepts like symbiosis and parasitism. [Zimmermann: History and Research Methods]: Zimmermann provides a historical overview of plant sociology, identifying Alexander von Humboldt as the founder of the scientific discipline. He distinguishes between 'intensive' research (physiological/laboratory-based) and 'extensive' research (field-based analysis of floristic structures). [Metabolic Relationships and Individual Plant Metabolism]: This section introduces metabolic relationships as the foundation for social interactions between plants. It defines the fundamental distinction between autotrophic organisms, which produce their own energy from mineral solutions and light, and heterotrophic organisms, which depend on other organisms for nutrition. [Competition and the Struggle for Resources]: The author discusses competition as the most frequent metabolic relationship between plants, driven by limited resources like light, air, and water. It explores how plant spacing and mixed-species environments (like layered root systems) are shaped by this struggle for survival, citing Cajander's data on tree stand requirements. [Metabolic Exchange: Sulfur and Nitrogen Cycles]: This segment examines the interdependence of organisms through nutrient cycles, specifically sulfur and nitrogen. It highlights the role of specialized bacteria in converting toxic or unusable substances (like hydrogen sulfide or atmospheric nitrogen) into forms that support the broader biological community, emphasizing the social unity of the biosphere. [Defining Parasitism and Symbiosis]: The author defines parasitism and symbiosis based on metabolic balance while warning against anthropomorphic value judgments. He argues that while the boundary between the two is fluid, parasitism is characterized by a one-sided benefit, whereas symbiosis involves a mutual exchange of life-sustaining substances. [Forms of Parasitism: Epiphytes and Semi-Parasites]: This section details various forms of parasitism, starting with 'spatial parasitism' in epiphytes (like lichens and lianas) and moving to semi-parasites like mistletoe. It explains how mistletoe selectively extracts water and minerals from its host while maintaining its own photosynthetic capabilities. [Full Parasitism and Pathological Interactions]: The text explores full parasites (Vollparasiten) such as Cuscuta and various fungi. It describes the 'specialized warfare' of smut fungi that hijack plant reproductive organs and induce 'cancerous' growths, including a rare case of parasitic mold described by Burgeff where the parasite manipulates the host's plasma. [Symbiosis: Root Nodules and Mycorrhiza]: Focusing on symbiosis, this segment examines nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legume root nodules and the mycorrhizal relationships in forest trees and orchids. The author emphasizes that these are not 'friendly' unions but balanced states of conflict where mutual benefit emerges from a struggle between host and invader. [Lichen Symbiosis and the Concept of Helotism]: The author discusses lichens as the classic example of symbiosis, where fungi and algae create a new biological entity. He addresses the terminological debate surrounding 'helotism' (the idea of the fungus as a master and the alga as a slave), ultimately defending the term 'symbiosis' as a scientific description of mutual benefit regardless of the underlying power dynamics. [Stimulus-Physiological Relationships in Plant Communities]: This section transitions to stimulus-physiological (reizphysiologische) relationships, exploring how plants respond to their neighbors through light orientation, parasitic attachment, or coordinated reproductive cycles (e.g., synchronized release of gametes in seaweed during tides). [Extensive Research Methods in Plant Sociology]: The author introduces the 'extensive' research method, which focuses on the totality of plants in a specific location (plant stands). He outlines three main problem groups for studying these stands: qualitative/quantitative description, finding general laws (causal/historical), and establishing a systematic classification of plant communities. [Methodology of Plant Sociology: Description and Classification]: This section details the methodological approach to describing plant communities, distinguishing between qualitative and quantitative analysis. It discusses the challenges of defining a 'complete' inventory (including non-flowering plants and microbes) and explains quantitative metrics such as percentage mass, coverage, and spatial distribution. The concept of the 'Association' as a systematic unit is introduced, alongside practical techniques like the quadrat method and the determination of 'Minimiareale'. [Formal and Causal Relationships in Plant Sociology]: The author explores the formal and causal laws governing plant associations. Formal relationships include 'life forms' (Humboldt) and the structural integrity of colonies, particularly in microbes. Causal factors are categorized into primary (physico-chemical site factors like water and temperature), secondary (biotic interactions like parasitism and shade dependency), and historical factors (migration and past extinctions). The section also introduces 'succession'—the temporal change of plant communities—and the use of pollen analysis to reconstruct vegetation history. [Systematics and Classification of Plant Associations]: This segment addresses the difficulties in classifying plant communities compared to individual organisms. It discusses the debate over whether associations are conceptual abstractions or natural realities (Du Rietz). The author argues for a purely floristic characterization of associations to avoid circular reasoning regarding environmental site factors. It concludes by noting that modern plant sociology uses a synthetic approach, building from lower units to higher formations like forests or grasslands. [Epistemological Foundations: Causality and Individuality]: A critical examination of the philosophical underpinnings of sociology and biology. The author discusses the choice of 'thought forms' (Denkformen) based on their success in explaining nature, referencing the transition from Newtonian physics to relativity. In biology, causality is defined as the unique determination of events by the totality of conditions. The author highlights the immense complexity of biological causality compared to physics due to the high number of variables and the unique 'individual character' of every organism and plant stand. [Values, Purpose, and the Concept of 'Wholeness' in Communities]: The author investigates whether plant communities possess 'wholeness' (Ganzheit) or 'purpose' (Zweckmäßigkeit). While individual organisms show clear teleological structures, plant stands range from mere 'aggregations' to highly integrated 'wholes' like lichens (symbiosis). The section also dismisses the idea of a 'plant soul' or 'community soul' in the sense of consciousness, arguing that while plants show physiological responses, they lack the psychological qualities (learning, instinctual influence) found in human or animal sociology. [Bibliography of Biological and Sociological Works]: A comprehensive list of academic references cited in the preceding sections, covering plant sociology, physiology, physics, and philosophy. Key authors include Braun-Blanquet, Du Rietz, Humboldt, Planck, and Sukatschew. [The Forest as a Living Community (Paul Krische)]: Paul Krische provides a summary of modern plant sociology, emphasizing that the 'struggle for existence' is balanced by 'mutual aid' and symbiosis. He describes the forest as a balanced equilibrium where trees, undergrowth, bacteria, and fungi (mycorrhiza) are interdependent. The section challenges the purely competitive view of nature, suggesting that higher-developed communities tend toward the mitigation of conflict through mutual benefit. [Despotism in Avian Social Life: The Individual as Personality]: Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe introduces his study on 'despotism' (pecking orders) in birds. He argues that every bird is a unique personality and that social understanding requires recognizing individual animals. He explores the limits of avian memory and recognition, noting that while birds recognize their own species better than humans do, their memory for individuals is generally short-lived (often fading after 1-3 weeks of separation), with the exception of certain parrots. [The Concept of Despotism and the Pecking Order]: Schjelderup-Ebbe defines 'despotism' as the fundamental principle of the world, existing in humans, animals, and even inanimate nature. He describes the behavioral markers of dominance (z) and submission (y) in birds, such as the 'threat sound' (Drohlaut) and physical avoidance. He notes that despotism is more visible in 'uncultured' beings (children, animals) where social norms like pity or laws do not mask the raw power dynamics. [The Formation of Hierarchies: Strength, Courage, and Circumstance]: This section explains how dominance is established between two birds, often during their first encounter through fighting, fear, or the speed of recovery from a shared fright. Schjelderup-Ebbe introduces the 'triangular despotism' (A beats B, B beats C, C beats A), proving that hierarchy is not solely based on physical strength but also on courage and situational factors. He defines 'subconscious perseverance' as the tendency for established hierarchies to persist even when the underlying power balance changes. [Age and Gender Factors in Avian Despotism]: The author examines how age and gender influence social rank. Young birds live in a state of 'innocence' until despotism emerges as an inherited trait. Older birds and males typically dominate younger ones and females, often maintaining this rank throughout life due to early establishment. However, in species of equal size (like mallards), dominance can shift seasonally based on plumage and mating cycles. The section concludes with a discussion on how female dominance in certain species can actually hinder reproduction due to the 'brutality' of the female despot. [Parallels in Individual and Group Psychology: The Nature of Despotism]: Explores psychological parallels between human mass uprisings and animal behavior, specifically how inexperienced individuals often become the most cruel despots. It establishes a biological basis for gender-based leadership roles in animals, while noting specific physiological exceptions where females may temporarily dominate. [Sexual Selection and Mating Despotism in Birds]: Analyzes the dynamics of mating and physical dominance between male and female birds. It discusses how female resistance can be driven by physiological pain or the immaturity of young males, and how the male's biological drive often outweighs the pain of physical defense from the female. [Collective Action and Numerical Factors in Despotism]: Examines how multiple weaker individuals can collectively overcome a stronger individual to establish dominance. This 'summation effect' demonstrates that social hierarchy is not solely a product of individual strength but also of group size and collective energy. [The Role of Age and Habituation in Maintaining Hierarchy]: Discusses how aging affects a bird's position in the pecking order. While physical decline eventually leads to challenges from younger birds, long-standing habits and the 'wrathful' appearance of elders often allow them to maintain their despotic status despite actual weakness. [Environmental and Biological Factors of Despotism]: Outlines various external and internal factors influencing social dominance, including seasonal changes, illness (which often leads to increased cruelty from others), and the 'recognition factor' where familiarity breeds social peace. It also notes that favorable living conditions lead to 'gentler' tyranny. [Sympathy, Antipathy, and Social Bonds in Avian Societies]: Explores the role of personal feelings in bird hierarchies. It describes 'friendships' that soften despotism and 'antipathies' that sharpen it. It also analyzes the psychological state of the oppressed, noting that fear often precludes the ability to feel reciprocal hate toward a despot. [Species Variation and Apparent Organization in Social Conflict]: Distinguishes between true organized cooperation and 'apparent' organization. In birds, multiple individuals may attack a newcomer simultaneously, but this is usually a collection of individual reactions to a common stimulus rather than a coordinated group strategy. [Social Position and the Intensity of Tyranny]: Discusses how a bird's position in the hierarchy affects its behavior. Lower-ranking despots (who are themselves oppressed by others) tend to be more cruel to their subordinates than high-ranking 'alpha' birds. Isolation experiments show that removing the social pressure of a larger group can lead to friendlier relations between a despot and its sole subject. [The Influence of Fatigue, Light, and Complex Social Geometries]: Examines how physical states like fatigue and environmental factors like darkness (for diurnal birds) suspend the pecking order. It also introduces complex social structures such as 'pecking in a square' and the role of the 'Alpha-bird' in larger groups. [The Physical and Psychological Consequences of Rank]: Describes the visible effects of social rank on birds, where high-ranking individuals appear healthy and clean while low-ranking ones are thin and dirty. It also details the profound psychological collapse that occurs when an Alpha-bird is defeated and loses its status. [Integration of New Individuals and Group Suggestion]: Analyzes the difficulty new birds face when entering an established group and the role of 'home-field advantage.' It also discusses 'flight suggestion,' where the panic of one bird triggers the group, regardless of the individual's social rank. [Barriers, Size, and Individual Predisposition to Despotism]: Investigates how physical barriers (wire mesh) affect hierarchy formation and notes that courage is more decisive than physical size in establishing dominance. It also identifies 'pathological' extremes of despotism, from murderous rage to imbecilic submission. [Communication and Expression: Sounds and Postures of Dominance]: Examines the use of 'threat sounds' (Drohlaute) and physical postures as signals of social status and emotional state. It critiques previous theories of animal emotion and categorizes expressions based on whether they stem from satisfied or rejected needs for dominance. [Interspecies Despotism and the 'Fear of the Unknown']: Extends the theory of despotism to interactions between different species, including birds and mammals. It introduces the concept of 'Artdespotismus' (species-level despotism), where one entire species is dominant over another, and discusses the 'Noli-me-tangere' principle of mutual avoidance. [The Sociology of the Edible Frog (Rana esculenta)]: A specific study by Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe on the social hierarchy of frogs. It identifies a pecking order among males during the mating season, characterized by size-based dominance and individual variations in vocalization (croaking), suggesting frogs possess a higher social organization than previously thought. [Bibliography and Introduction to Human Ancestry]: Contains the cited literature for the preceding sections on animal sociology and introduces a new section by Dr. Gerhard Heberer on the problem of human ancestry in light of paleontological research. [Introduction: Comparative Neurology and the Parallelism of Morphology and Psychology]: The author introduces the comparative study of the central nervous system across different animal groups, noting that while complexity generally follows systematic rank, exceptions like cephalopods and social insects exist. He establishes a fundamental law of parallelism between morphological brain development and psychological capacity, arguing that changes in structure inevitably lead to changes in behavior. The section includes a significant footnote addressing the four-year delay in publication and the emergence of new research on Pithecanthropus erectus. [The Evolutionary Link Between Animal and Human Psyche]: This segment argues for a continuous evolutionary path from animal to human psychology based on the biogenetic law and morphological evidence. The author asserts that there is no fundamental difference between the 'animal soul' and 'human soul,' only a gradual difference in complexity. He emphasizes that while morphology remains the primary foundation for tracing human ancestry, it must be combined with physiology and ethology for a true biological understanding of phylogenetic events. [The Current State of Descent Theory: Problems and Definitions]: The author outlines the current state of evolutionary theory, dividing it into three distinct problems: the fact of descent, the factors/causes of evolution, and the specific genealogical paths (phylogeny). He reaffirms man's place within the order of Primates and argues that the systematic classification of organisms provides the primary proof for descent theory. He distinguishes between the proven fact of evolution and the still-debated mechanisms behind it. [Serological Evidence and Blood Constitution in Primates]: This section discusses serological evidence (precipitin reactions) as a 'supplementary proof' for evolution. It details how the chemical structure of proteins in the blood of humans and anthropoid apes (chimpanzees, orangutans, and even gibbons) shows high similarity. The author also explores the discovery of human-like blood groups (A and B) in apes, reinforcing the theory that humans and apes shared a long common phylogenetic path. [The Factors of Evolution: Mutation, Environment, and Heredity]: The author examines the 'factors problem' of evolution, contrasting Darwinism and Lamarckism. He defines mutations (genovariations) as the basis for phylogenetic progress but admits that the underlying causes of these mutations remain largely unknown. He discusses the modern genetic view of 'reaction norms' and the role of the environment, concluding that our causal understanding of past evolution is still in its infancy. [Methodological Challenges in Constructing Human Phylogeny]: The final segment of this chunk addresses the 'stammbaum' (family tree) problem. The author warns against confusing 'Stufenreihen' (morphological stages) with true 'Ahnenreihen' (genetic lineages), citing the risk of specialization crossings. He critiques existing attempts to link fossil primates like Propliopithecus directly to humans, noting that most such trees are heuristic rather than definitive. He concludes that while the principle of evolution is accepted, specific genealogical details remain highly hypothetical. [Recent Finds in Human Phylogeny: Pithecanthropus erectus]: This section provides an extensive re-evaluation of Pithecanthropus erectus based on Dubois' 1924 republication. It discusses the geological dating of the Trinil finds, concluding they are Diluvial rather than Pliocene. The text analyzes the morphological discrepancy between the human-like femur (indicating bipedalism) and the ape-like skullcap (calotte). While some researchers viewed it as a 'missing link,' the author argues it represents a highly cerebralized extinct side-branch of the primate tree, closely related to the chimpanzee-human root but not a direct ancestor. Recent updates by Weinert and others regarding cranial capacity and frontal sinuses are included. [The Piltdown Man Controversy: Eoanthropus dawsoni]: A critical analysis of the Piltdown Man (Eoanthropus dawsoni) finds in Sussex. The author argues that the 'Dawn Man' is a fiction created by the erroneous association of a modern-type human cranium with a chimpanzee-like mandible (later named Pan vetus by Miller). The section details the anatomical contradictions that make the combination biologically impossible, such as the mismatch between the temporal muscle attachment sites on the skull versus the jaw. It concludes that while the skull proves the existence of modern human types in the early Diluvium, the composite 'Eoanthropus' must be rejected. [The Rhodesian Man: Homo rhodesiensis]: This segment examines the 1920 discovery of 'Rhodesian Man' at Broken Hill. It describes the skull's unique features: massive supraorbital ridges combined with a modern-type braincase and upright posture (indicated by the foramen magnum position). The author discusses the debate over whether it belongs to the Neanderthal group or represents a distinct species. Updated notes from Hrdlička and Weidenreich suggest that the modern-looking limb bones found nearby likely do not belong to the primitive skull, allowing the skull to be classified as a very primitive form of Neanderthaloid or a precursor. [Australopithecus africanus: The Taung Child]: An analysis of the Australopithecus africanus (Taung Child) discovered by Raymond Dart in 1924. The text critiques Dart's initial claim that it was a direct 'missing link,' instead classifying it as a fossil ape (Simiid) closely related to the chimpanzee. The author notes that its human-like appearance is partly due to its juvenile status (ontogenetic factors) but acknowledges its unusually high brain capacity and certain dental features that point toward a human direction. It concludes that while not a direct ancestor, it demonstrates that early ape ancestors were more human-like than previously thought. [The Phylogeny of the Primate Lineage]: This section provides a summary of the phylogenetic development of primates and humans based on the fossil record available in the early 20th century. Thurnwald discusses the genetic unity of prosimians, monkeys, and humans, tracing their origins back to the transition between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. He critiques the simplistic Haeckelian view of linear descent, highlighting the complexities and 'discords' found in morphological comparisons, such as ear bone structures. The text examines specific fossil finds like Propliopithecus, Sivapithecus, and Dryopithecus, concluding that while humans and great apes share a common root, the exact point of divergence remains unproven by the current fossil material. It also addresses the debate between monogenic and polygenic origins of humanity, favoring a monogenic but polyphyletic interpretation. [Intelligence Testing in Great Apes]: Thurnwald reviews Wolfgang Köhler's landmark intelligence experiments with chimpanzees on Tenerife. The section argues for the 'parallelism of morphology and psyche,' linking brain development to cognitive abilities. It details various experiments where chimpanzees (like Sultan and Nueva) demonstrated insight rather than mere trial-and-error or instinct, including the use of sticks as tools, stacking boxes to reach food, and even the intentional modification and combination of tools (joining reeds). These findings are presented as evidence that the mental structure of great apes is qualitatively similar to that of early humans, bridging the gap between animal instinct and human intellect. [Bibliography of Biological Foundations of Sociology]: A comprehensive list of academic references cited in the preceding chapters, covering works from 1894 to 1927. Key authors include Abel, Dubois, Keith, Klaatsch, Köhler, Schwalbe, and Woodward, focusing on human evolution, fossil discoveries, and primate psychology. [Craniological Polarity Theory and its Sociological Significance]: K. F. Wolff introduces the 'Craniological Polarity Theory' as a revision of traditional racial craniology. He critiques the 19th-century reliance on the cephalic index (length-width ratio) as a fixed racial marker, noting that 'Alpine' brachycephaly exists among both blond Nordics and dark Mediterraneans. Wolff argues that the cephalic index is actually a phrenological/temperamental marker: dolichoid (long-headed) individuals are naturally more mobile, adventurous, and prone to migration/conquest, while brachoid (short-headed) individuals are more sedentary, persistent, and resilient. He uses this 'Polarity Theory' to explain sociological phenomena like the 'reversal of skull forms' in the Alps and the selection processes in emigration to the colonies, suggesting that the index distinguishes psychological types within every race rather than the races themselves. [Bibliography: Forschungen zur Völkerpsychologie und Soziologie]: A list of published volumes in the series 'Forschungen zur Völkerpsychologie und Soziologie', including works on animal sociology, class structure, youth psychology, gender, and the history of political terminology. It also provides pricing information and contact details for the editor, Richard Thurnwald.