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Agrarpolitik

Hermann von Schullern zu Schrattenhofen · 1924

Agrarpolitik

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Hermann von Schullern zu Schrattenhofen, Agrarpolitik (1924)

Hermann von Schullern zu Schrattenhofen’s Agrarpolitik presents agrarian policy as a systematic science of public action for the postwar German-speaking world. Its premise is that agriculture cannot be treated as a merely private occupation or isolated branch of production, because soil, settlement, food supply, labor, markets, and national culture are interdependent. The opening definition gives the work its broad scope:

Agrarpolitik im weitesten Sinne ist der Inbegriff aller jener Maßnahmen, die der Staat und andere öffentlich-rechtliche Körperschaften durchführen zu dem Zwecke, um die Bodenproduktion zum Besten der Volkswirtschaft und damit des Gesamtwohles zu regeln und zu heben.

English translation: Agrarian policy in the broadest sense is the sum total of all those measures which the state and other public-law bodies carry out for the purpose of regulating and elevating soil production for the benefit of the national economy and thereby of the general welfare.

From this basis Schullern rejects both doctrinaire laissez-faire and rigid statism. The state has economic duties, but they must be exercised with attention to historical conditions, technical knowledge, and the interdependence of sectors. Public measures are justified by their contribution to production, provisioning, social peace, and common welfare.

Die volkswirtschaftlichen Aufgaben des Staates müssen als gegeben, seine Pflicht, sie zu erfüllen, als unabweislich anerkannt bleiben.

English translation: The economic tasks of the state must be recognized as given, and its duty to fulfill them as inescapable.

The book moves from concepts and method to the condition of agriculture, the relation between agriculture and other branches of the economy, property and cultivation, labor, organization, credit, markets, price formation, and regulation. Across these topics Schullern treats agrarian policy as cultural policy as well as economic policy. The economy is not an autonomous end, but an instrument through which social and cultural development are sustained.

Die Volkswirtschaft ist demnach nicht Selbstzweck, sie ist vielmehr in erster Reihe ein Hilfsmittel des kulturellen Fortschrittes und hat von diesem Standpunkte aus behandelt und geleitet zu werden.

English translation: The national economy is accordingly not an end in itself; rather, it is in the first place an instrument of cultural progress, and must be treated and directed from this standpoint.

This perspective explains his emphasis on the self-cultivating proprietor. Schullern regards stable ownership, adequate capital, technical intelligence, and personal responsibility as the most desirable social foundation of rural life. The farmer who owns and works the land appears as both economic producer and civic type, joining property to duty and independence to service.

Der intelligente, mit dem erforderlichen Kapital ausgestaltete, seiner persönlichen, völkischen, staatlichen und sozialen Pflichten voll bewußte, den Boden selbst bebauende Bodeneigentümer ist die Idealgestalt des Staatsbürgers.

English translation: The intelligent landowner, equipped with the requisite capital, fully conscious of his personal, national, civic, and social duties, and himself cultivating the soil, is the ideal figure of the citizen.

Yet Agrarpolitik is not simply a defense of landed property. Schullern repeatedly insists that agrarian interests must be mediated with those of consumers, workers, industry, and trade. Rural policy cannot succeed through sectoral antagonism; agriculture needs industry and commerce, just as urban society requires a productive countryside. This logic also shapes his labor chapters, where wages, migration, education, living standards, and justice are treated as central agrarian questions.

His discussion of markets and prices carries the same balancing impulse. Commerce is necessary for distributing grain and coordinating supply and demand, but it is legitimate only insofar as it serves production and provisioning. Price policy should protect agriculture from ruinous instability without licensing speculative gain or burdening consumers beyond what production requires.

Unter Preiswucher verstehen wir jeden Akt, der die Bildung von Preisen verursacht, die das für die Aufrechterhaltung der Produktion und die Versorgung des Marktes erforderliche Maß überschreiten.

English translation: By price usury we understand every act which causes the formation of prices that exceed the measure required for maintaining production and supplying the market.

The treatise’s lasting interest lies in its synthesis of agrarian economics, state theory, and social ethics. Schullern writes in the language of his time, including national-cultural assumptions that mark the work as a product of postwar Central Europe, but his analytical design is broader: agriculture becomes the field in which property, labor, public authority, market order, and civic responsibility are tested together. Agrarpolitik argues for a historically adaptive, socially purposive agrarian policy that neither abandons rural production to market contingency nor dissolves it into administrative command.

Sections

This work was divided into 177 sections when it entered the library's research corpus—an apparatus for search and citation, not necessarily the author's own table of contents. Each title opens its summary.

  1. 1Title Page and Publication Metadata▾
  2. 2Preface to the Grundrisse Series▾
  3. 3Author’s Preface to Agrarpolitik▾
  4. 4Table of Contents▾
  5. 5Introduction: Concept and Nature of Agrarian Policy▾
  6. 6Concept of Agrarian Constitution▾
  7. 7Current State of Agrarian Constitution: Land Distribution and Land Use▾
  8. 8Common Lands, Settlement Forms, and Land Consolidation▾
  9. 9Agricultural Tenure, Lease Forms, and Rentengut▾
  10. 10Rentengut and Homestead Institutions▾
  11. 11Stability of Land Tenure, Inheritance Restrictions, and Fideicommisses▾
  12. 12Statistics of Ownership Transfers, Forced Auctions, and Land Fragmentation▾
  13. 13Agrarian Population, Occupational Structure, and Demography▾
  14. 14Mortgage Burdens, Rural Indebtedness, and Land Credit▾
  15. 15Chapter II Introduction: Agricultural Property Relations▾
  16. 16Bibliography for Section A: Land Ownership▾
  17. 17Private Land Ownership and Its Public Obligations▾
  18. 18Forest, Pasture, and Dwarf Holdings▾
  19. 19Large Estates, Latifundia, and Leasehold Relations▾
  20. 20Bibliography for Section B: Present Conditions in Land Distribution▾
  21. 21Assessment of German Land Distribution and Small Holdings▾
  22. 22Farm-size distribution in Germany and Austria▾
  23. 23Public ownership of agricultural land and forests▾
  24. 24Agrarian commons between public and private property▾
  25. 25Open-field villages, scattered holdings, and early land-consolidation laws▾
  26. 26Legal compulsion, costs, and administration of land consolidation▾
  27. 27Field roads, permanence of consolidation, Austrian law, and parcel minima▾
  28. 28Melioration, water law, and water cooperatives▾
  29. 29Melioration finance, moor improvement, servitudes, and transition to land reform▾
  30. 30Section C: Land reform and the critique of large estates▾
  31. 31Postwar expropriation, settlement law, and abolition of fideicommissa▾
  32. 32Property of the dead hand and management of large estates▾
  33. 33Creation and protection of middle and small peasant holdings▾
  34. 34Land Distribution Reform, Internal Colonization, Homestead Policy, and International Agrarian Reform▾
  35. 35Reform Efforts in Land Configuration and Field Consolidation▾
  36. 36Land Improvement Reform: Melioration, Moor Cultivation, and National Economic Policy▾
  37. 37Literature for Other Agrarian Reform Issues▾
  38. 38Footnote to Land Improvement Reform: Bavarian Peat Economy Law▾
  39. 39Other Reform Efforts: State Control of Land Use, Ownership Stability, and Inheritance Law▾
  40. 40Anerbenrecht and the definition of the viable peasant holding▾
  41. 41Bibliography for Bodenreform▾
  42. 42Bodenreform: land nationalization, ground rent, and monopoly claims▾
  43. 43Bibliography for owner operation and tenancy▾
  44. 44Owner cultivation, absenteeism, and the superiority of Eigenbetrieb▾
  45. 45Time leases, rent levels, and the problems of sharecropping▾
  46. 46Erbpacht as transitional leasehold and limits on leased farm size▾
  47. 47Public regulation of agricultural leases and early Pachtschutz laws▾
  48. 48Bibliography for Bodenkredit▾
  49. 49Bodenkredit: scope of land credit in agrarian constitution▾
  50. 50Footnote on Pachtland for agricultural workers and small-garden ordinances▾
  51. 51Bodenkredit, mortgage indebtedness, and institutional reform▾
  52. 52Basic Purposes and Forms of Agricultural Credit▾
  53. 53Legitimate Credit, Valuation, and the Agricultural Credit Reservoir▾
  54. 54Interest Burdens, Public Intervention, and Non-Cancellable Mortgage Loans▾
  55. 55Amortization Plans and Annuity Mortgage Design▾
  56. 56Institutional Annuity Credit, Private Mortgages, and the Austrian Reform Proposal▾
  57. 57Profit-Seeking Credit Institutions, Conversion of Existing Debts, and Comparative Debt-Limit Policies▾
  58. 58Other Burdens on Landownership: Land Tax and Tax Reform▾
  59. 59Public Land Burdens, Real Burdens, and Servitudes (continued)▾
  60. 60Inheritance Law in Relation to Land Ownership▾
  61. 61Agrarian Crises▾
  62. 62Agrarian State and Industrial State▾
  63. 63Bibliography for Chapter V: Agrarian History, Part 1▾
  64. 64Footnotes to Agrarian and Industrial State▾
  65. 65Bibliography for Chapter V: Agrarian History, Conclusion▾
  66. 66Outline of Agrarian History: Origins, Property, and Settlement Forms▾
  67. 67Agrarian History: Settlement Forms, Village Communities, and Christianity▾
  68. 68Agrarian History: Unfreedom, Peasant Emancipation, Feudalism, and Roman Property Law▾
  69. 69Agrarian History: Entails, Peasant Property, Melioration, and Land Credit▾
  70. 70Social Problems of Agrarian Policy: Literature▾
  71. 71Social Agrarian Policy: Landowners, Peasant Classes, and Large Estates▾
  72. 72Social Agrarian Policy: Tenancy, Lease Regulation, and Tenant Protection▾
  73. 73Social Agrarian Policy: Agricultural Wage Labor and Rural Servants▾
  74. 74Agricultural Servants and the Decline of Patriarchal Labor Relations▾
  75. 75Contract-Bound Day Laborers, Deputatists, and Colonate Forms▾
  76. 76Free Agricultural Day Laborers and Non-Permanent Rural Work▾
  77. 77Foreign Seasonal Workers, Migration Policy, and Future Labor Demand▾
  78. 78Seasonal Labor Mobility and Occupational Differentiation in Agriculture▾
  79. 79Agricultural Wages, Natural Payments, and the Difficulty of Wage Statistics▾
  80. 80Historical and Regional Wage Evidence from Germany and Austria▾
  81. 81Time Wages, Piece Wages, Share Wages, and Wage-Setting Institutions▾
  82. 82The Rural Labor Contract and the 1919 Land Labor Order▾
  83. 83Tariff Contracts, Arbitration, Works Councils, and Social Peace▾
  84. 84Social Insurance, Smallholder Protection, Ausgedinge, and Labor Placement▾
  85. 85Agricultural labor placement institutions and statistics▾
  86. 86Land flight: forms, causes, consequences, and remedies▾
  87. 87Agricultural labor, employer organizations, collective bargaining, and estate officials▾
  88. 88Conclusion to the social problems of agrarian policy▾
  89. 89Introduction to the agrarian enterprise▾
  90. 90Agrarian production systems: literature, origins, and basic determinants▾
  91. 91Typologies of Agricultural Operating Systems▾
  92. 92Slash-and-Burn and Hauberg Economies▾
  93. 93Wild and Improved Field-Grass Farming▾
  94. 94Field Systems and the Improved Three-Field Economy▾
  95. 95Crop Rotation, Fertilizer, and the Law of the Minimum▾
  96. 96Free Farming and the Relative Suitability of Farm Systems▾
  97. 97Diminishing Soil Returns, Profitability, and Price Policy▾
  98. 98Need and Limits of Agricultural Statistics▾
  99. 99General Rationale for State Promotion of Agriculture▾
  100. 100Public Responsibility for Farmers' Technical Training▾
  101. 101Elementary and Continuation Education for Rural Youth▾
  102. 102Hierarchy of Agricultural Vocational Schools▾
  103. 103Agricultural Higher Education and Institutional Organization▾
  104. 104Specialized Schools, Winter Schools, and Itinerant Teachers▾
  105. 105Agricultural Extension, Model Farms, and Experiment Stations▾
  106. 106Bibliography for Agricultural Erwerbs- und Wirtschaftsgenossenschaften▾
  107. 107The Cooperative Idea as Agricultural Self-Help▾
  108. 108Legal Forms and Economic Types of Agricultural Cooperatives▾
  109. 109Agricultural Operating Credit and the Origins of Credit Cooperatives▾
  110. 110Raiffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch Systems Compared▾
  111. 111German Credit Cooperative Federations, Statistics, and Central Banking Institutions▾
  112. 112Austrian and International Credit Cooperatives, Alternative Credit Instruments, and Usury▾
  113. 113Productive and Marketing Cooperatives in Agriculture▾
  114. 114Conclusion on Agricultural Cooperatives and Consumer Cooperatives▾
  115. 115Agricultural Insurance: Literature▾
  116. 116Agriculture’s Need for Property Damage Insurance and Actuarial Limits▾
  117. 117Social Insurance and the Scope of Specifically Agricultural Insurance▾
  118. 118Livestock Insurance: Risks, History, and Local Mutual Organization▾
  119. 119Livestock Insurance: State Intervention, Compulsion, and Public Models▾
  120. 120Hail Insurance: Nature, History, and Public versus Private Organization▾
  121. 121Austria’s Subsidized Livestock Insurance and Epizootic Compensation▾
  122. 122Livestock Insurance Conditions and German Statistical Data▾
  123. 123Law, Administration, National Economy, and the Agrarian-Industrial State▾
  124. 124Operating Duties, Land-Use Obligations, and Indirect State Promotion▾
  125. 125Hail Insurance: Compulsion, Territory, and Premium Tariffs▾
  126. 126Hail Insurance in Germany: Statistics, Decline, and Open Problems▾
  127. 127Promotion of Agricultural Operations: Fertilizer, Machinery, Fruit, and Special Crops▾
  128. 128Indirect Promotion through Field Police and Field Watches▾
  129. 129State Action against Animal and Plant Pests▾
  130. 130Bird Protection, International Coordination, and Rural Education▾
  131. 131Renewed Administrative Tasks in Goat and Sheep Husbandry▾
  132. 132Bibliography for Agricultural Industries▾
  133. 133Agricultural Industries▾
  134. 134Agricultural Interest Representation▾
  135. 135Bibliography for Trade and Price Formation▾
  136. 136Grain Trade, Food Supply, and the Service Role of Commerce▾
  137. 137Freedom and Regulation in Trade with Agricultural Products▾
  138. 138Local Markets, Middlemen, Credit, and Consumer-Producer Protection▾
  139. 139Commodity Exchanges and Grain Futures Trading▾
  140. 140Continuation of Futures Trading, Price Depression, and Market Volatility▾
  141. 141Warehouses, Cooperative Grain Marketing, and Producer Storage▾
  142. 142Parasitic Middlemen, Consumer Cooperatives, and Food-Market Regulation▾
  143. 143Livestock Markets, Market Power, Cooperatives, and War-Era Livestock Trade▾
  144. 144General Principles of Agricultural Price Formation and State Price Policy▾
  145. 145Land Prices, Land Hunger, Speculation, and Public Control of Land Transfers▾
  146. 146Prices of Agricultural Inputs, Livestock, Milk, and the Limits of Direct Price Controls▾
  147. 147Land Prices and the Indirect Effects of Protective Tariffs▾
  148. 148Protective Tariffs: Free-Trade Objections and Agrarian Counterarguments▾
  149. 149The Tirol Grain Surcharge as Evidence on Tariff Incidence▾
  150. 150Justifying Protective Tariffs Despite Price Effects: National Independence and Production Costs▾
  151. 151Agricultural Protective Tariffs: Justification, Limits, German History, and the Kanitz Proposal▾
  152. 152Literature for Agrarian Statistics in the Service of Agrarian Policy▾
  153. 153Purpose and Required Scope of Agrarian Statistics▾
  154. 154Ownership, Farm Operation, and Occupational Classification in Agrarian Statistics▾
  155. 155Statistics of Agrarian Constitution, Land Transfers, and Rural Debt▾
  156. 156Farm Census Data, Farm Equipment, Labor, and Rentability Records▾
  157. 157Livestock Censuses, Census Dates, and Animal Loss Statistics▾
  158. 158Statistics of Cultivated Areas and Harvest Yields▾
  159. 159Harvest Statistics, Wartime Reforms, and Crop Condition Reports▾
  160. 160Acreage of Crops and Grassland in the German Empire, 1888–1921▾
  161. 161Total Harvest Outputs in the German Empire and Major States, 1888–1921▾
  162. 162Per-Hectare Yields in Germany and Comparative Austrian Crop Statistics▾
  163. 163Livestock Inventories in Germany and Austria, 1883–1921▾
  164. 164Foreign Trade in Agricultural Products for Germany and Austria-Hungary▾
  165. 165Livestock and Meat Price Tables, 1902–1922▾
  166. 166Customs Revenues from Agricultural Imports, 1894–1904▾
  167. 167Wholesale Grain and Agricultural Commodity Price Table, 1902–1912 Portion▾
  168. 168German, Austrian, and International Agricultural Price Statistics▾
  169. 169German Agricultural Cooperative Counts, 1914–1922▾
  170. 170International Barley and Maize Price Comparisons▾
  171. 171Cooperative Liability and Business Statistics in Germany and Austria▾
  172. 172Swiss Agricultural Structure, Production, Trade, and Prices▾
  173. 173Swiss agricultural statistics and insurance, continuation▾
  174. 174Appendix: Land ownership by foreigners▾
  175. 175Name and subject index▾
  176. 176Publisher series list: Outlines for the study of economics▾
  177. 177Publisher catalogue of agricultural economic literature▾

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